


























































































































































































































































HAND-BOOK 


OF MODERN 


STEAM FIRE-ENGINES, 

INCLUDING TUB 


RUNNING, CARE AND MANAGEMENT OF STEAM 
FIRE-ENGINES AND FIRE-PUMPS. 



BT 


STEPHEN ROPER, ENGINEER, 

actiiob of “roper’s catechism of iiigii pressure ou non-condensing steam 
ENGINES,” “ roper’s HAND-BOOK OF LOCOMOTIVES,” “ROPER’S HAND¬ 
BOOK OF LAND AND MARINE ENGINES,” ETC. 


jSecoml (#diti0U t with gItatratiottf. 




REVISED AND CORRECTED BY H. L. STELLWAGEN, M. H. 


FCO/Vty ■ 

s COPYRIGHT \ 


MAY 111889 

„ //C1 */ 

^ShinqtoH. 


<UJi 


PHILADELPHIA: 
EDWARD MEEKS. 

1012 WALNUT STREET. 

1889 . 







Copyrighted, 1889. 


EDWARD MEEKS 




TO 


the chief engineer, 

OF THE 

FIKE DEPARTMENT OF PHILADELPHIA, 


THIS 

SECOND EDITION 
IS RESPECTFULLY INSCRIBED. 


xi 
















* li,. 

. ■ 





. 







PREFACE. 


A SECOND revised edition of the Steam Fire-Engine 
has been deemed by the publisher necessary, from 
the fact that much of the apparatus described in the 
original work have undergone material improvement in 
construction, designed for their betterment and greater 
utility in the subjugation of fires. 

With reference to this particular matter, the object has 
been to give such corrections in construction as might 
seem to be most essential to the class of men for whom its 
publication is designed, and to weed out such descriptions 
as can have at this time no special interest for the reader. 

That portion of the book devoted to hydraulics, as well 
as the pages pertaining to the properties of fire, air, 
water, heat and steam, remain unaltered ; they play the 
same important part for the steam engine to-day as they 
did yesterday and will to-morrow. 

Rules and formulae are here for estimating the horse¬ 
power of stationary, locomotive and steam fire-engines; 
likewise for their care and management. 

With this brief review the publisher submits this edition 
of the Steam Fire-Engine to the employees of the fire 
departments of the country, in the hope that they may 
glean from its pages something that will add to their 
efficiency, which, coupled with bravery and fidelity to the 
public welfare, characteristics which have ever belonged 
to our firemen, should gain for them that recognition 
which merit and faithfulness to the public interests deserve. 





























. 







. 












. ' 




, 

. 
















. 






CONTENTS 


For a full reference to the Contents in detail, see Index, page 403. 


PAGE 

The Steam Fire-engine.25 

Fire.28 

Precautions against Fires.34 

What to do in Case of Fire.36 

Means of Preventing Fires.38 

Different Methods of Extinguishing Fires . . 40 

Fire-escapes.42 

Fire-proof Buildings.43 

Losses by Fire.44 

Ahrens’ Steam Fire-engine . . . . .47 

Air.48 


Table showing the Weight of the Atmosphere in Pounds, 
Avoirdupois, on 1 Square Inch, corresponding with 
different Heights of the Barometer, from 28 Inches to 
31 Inches, varying by Tenths of an Inch . . .50 

Table showing the Expansion of Air by Heat, and the 
Increase in Bulk in Proportion to Increase of Tem¬ 
perature . 52 

Elastic Fluids.53 

Air-vessels.54 

Clapp and Jones’ Steam Fire-engine . . . . 57 

Water.60 

Table showing the Boiling-point for Fresh Water at 
different Altitudes above Sea-level . . . .65 

Table showing the Weight of Water at different Tem¬ 
peratures ......... 66 


xv 










xvi 


CONTENTS. 


PAGH 


t 


Table showing the Weight of Water in Pipe of various 

Diameters 1 Foot in Length. 67 

Table containing the Diameters, Circumferences, and 
Areas of Circles, and the Contents of each in Gallons, 
at 1 Foot in Depth. Utility of the Table . . .68 

Silsby Rotary Steam Fire-engine . . . .73 

* 

Method of Working the Steam in the Silsby Rota¬ 
ry Engine.74 

Discharge of Water through Apertures. . . 76 

Table showing the Theoretical Discharge of Water by 
Round Apertures of various Diameters, and under 
different Heads of Water Pressure . . . .78 

Table showing the Actual Discharge by Short Tubes of 
various Diameters, with Square Edges and under dif¬ 
ferent Heads of Water Pressure, being T 8 ff of the 

Theoretical Discharge. 79 

Table showing the Discharge of Jets with different 

Heads.80 

Table showing the Number of Gallons of Water dis¬ 


charged through different Size Apertures, and with 
different Heads, in One Minute and in Twenty-four 


Hours.81 

Rules.83 

Steam Fire-engines.88 

Names of Principal Manufacturers of Steam Fire- 

engines in this Country.90 

Amoskeag Steam Fire-engine.90 

Early Forms of Steam Fire-engines . . . .92 

Floating Steam Fire-engines.100 

The Button Steam Fire-engine.101 

Trials of Steam Fire-engines.103 

Instructions for the Care and Management of 
Steam Fire-engines and Boilers .... 105 

Engineers . ‘.Ill 

Firemen.. 

Useful Information for Engineers and Firemen . 114 
Paid and Volunteer Fire Departments . . .118 







CONTENTS. 


xvii 


Fire-Alarms . 

••••••# 

The Gould Steam Fire-engine. 

Routine of Business in Paid Fire Departments 
Fire-hose 

**•••••• 

Hose-couplings 

••••••• 

Dimensions of First- and Second-Class Steam Fire- 

engines . 

Horizontal Distances thrown by Modern Steam 

Fire-engines. 

Perpendicular Heights thrown by Modern Steam 

Fire-engines,. 

The La France Steam Fire-engine .... 
High-pressure or Non-condensing Steam-engines— 
Fire, Locomotive, and Stationary 

Power of the Steam-engine,. 

Foreign Terms and Units for Horse-power 

Table of Factors ........ 

The Power or Horse-power of the Locomotive 
Bules for Calculating the Tractive Power of 

Locomotives. 

Table of Gradients. 

Holloway Chemical Fire-engine .... 
Self-propelling Steam Fire-engines .... 
Waste in the High-pressure or Non-condensing 

Steam-engines. 

Table Comparing Duty of Modern High-grade 

Engines.' . 

Different Parts of Steam-engines—The Crank 
Table showing the Angular Position of the Crank-pin 
Corresponding with the various Points in the Stroke 
which the Piston may occupy in the Cylinder 
Table of Piston Speeds for all Classes of Engines—Sta¬ 
tionary, Locomotive, Fire, and Marine 
Table showing Position of the Piston in the Cylinder at 
different Crank-angles, according to the length of Con¬ 
necting-rod ........ 

2* B 


PAGE 

121 

123 

125 

128 

129 

131 


134 

137 

138 

143 

144 
148 
157 

159 

160 
162 
163 
167 

167 

170 

170 


175 


175 


176 



xvm 


CONTENTS 


PAGK 

Table showing Length of Stroke and Number of Revo¬ 
lutions for different Piston Speeds in Feet per 

Minute.177, 178 

The Eccentric. 179 

The Slide-valve. 182 

Proportions of Slide-valves. 186 

Lap on the Slide-valve. 186 

Table showing Amount of “ Lap ” required for Slide- 
valves of Stationary Engines when the Steam is to be 


Worked Expansively . 

• 

• 

• 

. 188 

Lead of the Slide-valve 

• 

• 

• 

. 189 

Friction of Slide valves 

• 

• 

• 

. 190 

Balanced Slide-valves . 

• 

• 

• 

. 192 

Compression .... 

• 

• 

• 

. 192 

Clearance .... 

• 


• 

. 193 

Automatic Cut-offs 

• 

• 

• 

. 193 

Setting Valves 




. 196 

How to set a Slide-valve . 

• 

a 

• 

. 196 

Setting out Piston Packing . 

• 

a 

• 

. 199 

How to Reverse an Engine . 

• 

• 

• 

. 200 

Dead Centre .... 




. 200 

How to put an Engine in Line 

• 

• 

• 

. 201 

Proportions of Steam-engines 

ACCORDING 

TO THE 


Best Modern Practice .203 

Table showing Proper Thickness for Steam-cylinders of 

different Diameters.207 

The Invention and Improvement of the Steam- 

engine .208 

Signification of Signs used in Calculations . . 216 

Decimals .217 


Decimal Equivalents of Inches, Feet, and Yards . . 217 
Decimal Equivalents of Pounds and Ounces . . . 218 
Useful Numbers in calculating Weights and Measures, 

etc.,.218 

Decimal Equivalents to the Fractional Parts of a Gallon 

or an Inch.219 

Units .219 





















CONTENTS. xix 

I'AGK 

The Metric System of Measures and Weights. . 223 

Metric Measures of Length.224 

Metric Measures of Surface ...... 224 

Metric Measures of Capacity ...... 225 

Metric Weights . . 225 

Pumps.227 

Steam-pumps.233 

Blake’s Special Steam Fire-pump .... 235 
Wright’s Bucket-plunger Steam Fire-pump . . 237 

Dimensions of the Bucket-plunger Steam Fire-pumps . 239 
Proportions of Steam Fire-pumps . . . . 240 

Proportions of Boiler Feed-pumps .... 240 

Proportions of Marine-pumps.241 

Proportions of Wrecking-pumps . . . . 241 

Proportions of Mining-pumps.242 

Proportions of Air-pumps.242 

Proportions of Tank-pumps.243 

Proportions of Brewers’ and Distillers’ Pumps . 243 
Table showing the Proportions of Steam-pumps demon¬ 
strated by Practical Experience to be the best adapted 
for the Various Purposes for which they are used . 244 

The Knowles’ Steam Fire-pump.247 

Earle’s Steam Fire-pump. 251 

Directions for Setting up Steam-pumps . . . 252 

The Atlas Steam Fire-pump.255 

Conde’s Challenge Steam Fire-pump. . . . 257 

Holly’s Rotary Steam Fire-pump .... 258 
Proper Method of Locating Steam Fire-pumps . 260 

The Injector.261 

Table of Capacities of Rue’s “ Little Giant” Injector . 265 

The Pulsometer.266 

The Hydraulic Ram.267 

Boilers of Steam Fire-engines.271 

Causes of Foaming in Steam-boilers .... 275 
Evaporation in Steam-boilers . . . . . 279 

Internal and External Corrosion of Steam-boil¬ 
ers t .280 











XX 


CONTENTS. 


PAGE 

Rules.283 

Rule for Finding the Heating Surface of Steam- 

boilers . . •.285 

Definitions as Applied to Boilers and Boiler 

Materials. . 288 

Table of Safe Internal Pressures for Iron Boilers . . 289 

Longitudinal and Curvilinear Strains . . . 293 

Heat.293 

Latent Heat of Various Substances .... 300 
Table of the Radiating Power of different Bodies . . 300 

Table showing the Effects of Heat upon different Bodies . 301 

Caloric.301 

Combustion.303 

Composition of different Kinds of Anthracite 

Coal.306 

Table showing the Total Heat of Combustion of Various 

Fuels.311 

Table showing the Nature and Value of several Varieties 
of American Coal and Coke, as deduced from Experi¬ 
ments by Professor Johnson, for the United States 

Government.312 

Table showing some of the Prominent Qualities in the 

principal American Woods.. 313 

Table showing the Relative Properties of good Coke, 

Coal, and Wood.313 

Entire Coal Productions of the World . . . 314 

Spontaneous Combustion.314 

Table showing the Temperature at which different Com¬ 
bustible Substances will Ignite.315 

Steam.317 

Economy of Working Steam Expansively. . . 329 

Table of Hyperbolic Logarithms to be Used in Connec¬ 
tion with the above Rule.334 

Table of Multipliers by which to Find the Mean Press¬ 
ure of Steam at Various Points of Cut-off . . . 335 

Table showing the Average Pressure of Steam upon the 
Piston throughout the Stroke, when Cut-off in the 







CONTENTS. 


XXI 


PAGK 

Cylinder from ^ to T 7 T , commencing with 25 Pounds 
and advancing in 5 Pounds up to 15 Pounds Pressure. 336 
Table showing the Average Pressure of Steam upon the 
Piston throughout the Stroke, when Cut-off in the 
Cylinder from ^ to commencing with 80 Pounds and 
advancing in 5 pounds up to 130 Pounds Pressure . 337 
Table showing the Temperature of Steam at different 
Pressures, from 1 Pound per Square Inch to 240 
Pounds, and the Quantity of Steam produced from a 
Cubic Inch of Water, according to the Pressure. . 338 
Explanation of Table .340 


341 


345 

350 

371 

374 


Table of the Elastic Force, Temperature, and Volume 
of Steam from a Temperature of 32° to 457° Fah., and 
from a Pressure of 0.2 to 900 Inches of Mercury. 

Table showing the Temperature and Weight of Steam 
at different Pressures from 1 Pound per Square Inch 
to 300 Pounds, and the Quantity of Steam produced 
from 1 Cubic Inch of Water, according to Pressure . 

Central and Mechanical Forces and Definitions . 

Mensuration of the Circle, Cylinder, Sphere, etc. 

Properties of the Circle. 

Table containing the Diameters, Circumferences, and 
Areas of Circles from ^ of an Inch to 20 Inches, ad¬ 
vancing by j 1 ^ of an Inch up to 10 Inches, and by \ of 
an Inch from 10 Inches to 20 Inches . 

Logarithms. 

Table of Logarithms of Numbers from 0 to 1000 

Hyperbolic Logarithms .... 

Table of Hyperbolic Logarithms . . 

Rules for Finding the Elasticity of Steel Springs. 384 
Table showing the Actual Extension of Wrought-iron 

at Various Temperatures. 

Table deduced from Experiments on Iron Plates for 
Steam-boilers, by the Franklin Institute, Phila . 

Table showing the result of Experiments made on differ¬ 
ent Brands of Boiler Iron at the Stevens Institute of 
Technology, Hoboken, New Jersey .... 


375 

378 

379 

380 

381 


385 


386 


387 







XXII 


CONTENTS. 


PAGE 

Table showing the Weight of Cast-iron Balls from 3 to 

13 Inches in Diameter.. 388 

Table showing the Weight of Cast-iron Plates per Super¬ 
ficial Foot as per Thickness. ..... 388 
Table showing the Weight of Cast-iron Pipes, 1 Foot in 
Length, from £ Inch to Inches thick, and from 3 

to 24 Inches Diameter.389 

Table showing the Weight of Boiler-plates 1 Foot Square, 
and from -j x ff Inch to an Inch thick . . . . 390 

Table showing the Weight of Square Bar-iron, from £ 

Inch to 6 Inches square, 1 Foot long .... 390 
Table showing the Weight of Bound-iron from £ Inch 
to 6 Inches Diameter, 1 Foot long .... 391 

How to Mark Engineers’ or Machinists’ Tools . 392 

To Polish Brass .392 

Solder.393 

Cement for making Steam-joints and Patching 

Steam-boilers.393 

Joints.395 

Belative Value of Foreign and United States 

Money.396 

Table showing the Load that can be Carried by Man 

and Animals.397 

Man or Animal Working a Machine .... 397 

Table of Coefficients of Frictions between Plane Sur¬ 
faces .398 

Table of Friction Coefficients for different Pressures up 

to the Limits of Abrasion.400 

The Prevention and Bemoval of Scale in Steam Boilers . 401 





LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS. 


Frontispiece—Silsby. pagk 

Street Scene.24 

Amoskeag Self-Propelling Engine.27 

Ahrens’ Steam Fire-Engine.40 

Clapp Sc Jones’ Steam Fire-Engine.56 

Silsby Rotary Crane-Neck Steam Fire-Engine ... 72 

Hodges’ Steam Fire-Engine.87 

Amoskeag Steam Fire-Engine.89 

The Button Steam Fire Engine.101 

The Gould Steam Fire-Engine.122 

The LaFrance Boiler.138 

The LaFrance Improved Piston Engine.140 

The Holloway Chemical Fire-Engine.163 

Diagram of the Crank.171 

Piston, Connecting Rod, and Crank Connection . . 174 

The Slide-Valve.183, 185 

Slide-Valve, Eccentric, and Crank.197 

Blake’s Special Steam Fire-Pump.• 226 

Wright’s Bucket-Plunger Steam Fire-Pump .... 238 

The Knowles’ Steam Fire-Pump.246 

Earle’s Steam Fire Pump . . ..250 

The Atlas Steam Fire-Pump.254 

The Challenge Steam Fire-Pump.256 

Holly’s Rotary Steam Fire-Pump.258 

Proper Method of Locating Steam-Pumps.260 

‘‘Little Giant” Injector.263 

The Pulsometer.266 

Clapp & Jones’ Vertical Circulating Steam-Boiler . 270 

The “Latta” Steam-Boiler. 276, 277 

The Silsby Vertical Steam-Boiler.287 


XXIll 




































24 


A STREET SCENE. 
















































































































































































































































































































































H^VTSTD-BOOK 

OF 

MODERN STEAM FIRE-ENGINES. 


THE STEAM FIRE-ENGINE. 

Nothing furnishes man with greater cause for congrat¬ 
ulation, and even an excusable pride, than the feats of that 
mighty impersonation of brute force and human intellect 
— the Steam-Engine, the Hercules of the nineteenth cen¬ 
tury— which, once launched into the world’s area, has 
gone forth, “ conquering and to conquer,” fulfilling its 
high destiny as a great civilizing agent, with an energy 
which no human arm can arrest and a rapidity which fills 
us with astonishment and admiration. It would be super¬ 
fluous here to attempt to enumerate the benefits which the 
steam-engine has conferred upon mankind. It is a matter 
of universal knowledge that all branches of industry have, 
since its introduction into use, made most important ad¬ 
vances through its aid ; and every day’s experience shows 
it constantly extending its beneficial influence to new and 
important purposes. 

3 


25 



































































































26 HAND-BOOK OF MODERN STEAM FIRE-ENGINES. 

When we consider what the steam-engine has done in 
the past, we have the less difficulty in comprehending 
what it may be destined to accomplish in the future. 
The poet’s anticipations have been long since more than 
realized — 

“Soon shall thy arm, unconquered steam, afar 
Drag the slow barge, or drive the rapid car; 

Or on wide waving wings, extended, bear 
The Hying chariot through the fields of air.” 

There are few manufacturing processes that have not 
been revolutionized, simplified, and extended within the 
past fifty years through the agency of the steam-engine. 
But it is not only in the large manufactory, the splendid 
steamer, and the rushing locomotive, that steam shows its 
wonderful power and usefulness, but frequently, “Titan¬ 
like,'’stubbornly contending with that ruthless destroyer of 
man’s abode — Fire. In fact, none of the multiform appli¬ 
cations.that have marked the progress of this potent crea¬ 
tion of engineering skill has invested it with such import¬ 
ance as its applicability to the purposes of extinguishing 
fires. Its first application to this use forms an important 
event in the history of useful machines both in this coun¬ 
try and in Europe. 

The Steam-Engine as a Fire-Engine, is of recent 
origin ; and contemplating the phases which it has already 
assumed, in connection with the fact that its energies have 
not yet been fully developed, it is not a matter of wonder 
that no other object, in the entire range of human devices, 
has so irresistibly arrogated to itself the devotion of the 
scientist and mechanic; while its complexity of parts and 
diversity of combination offer a wide scope for the exercise 
of ingenuity, highly inviting alike to the theoretical and 
the practical engineer. 

















AMOSKEAG SELF-PROPELLING STEAM FIRE-ENGINE 






































































28 HAND-BOOK OF MODERN STEAM FIRE-ENGINES. 


FIRE. 

Fire is one of the oldest elements, and one which has 
always attracted a great deal of attention from natural 
philosophers; and many theories have been advanced to 
account for all the remarkable phenomena which accom¬ 
pany it. Recent investigations, however, have proved 
that combustion is the result of chemical alterations in 
bodies of a very violent character; and that the heat thus 
evolved is merely an incidental phenomenon, or, in other 
words, heat is nothing more nor less than a vehement 
combination of various materials. Smoke is the product 
of the imperfect combustion of fuel, caused either by a 
want of oxygen or a want of temperature; and flame may 
be defined to be aeriform or gaseous matter heated to such 
a degree as to be luminous. The elements of all fire con¬ 
sists of hydro-carbons, which consist of oxygen and nitro¬ 
gen. In combustion, the carbon and oxygen have so great 
a chemical affinity for each other, that they rush violently 
together, and by the force of their combustion produce in¬ 
tense heat. The hydrogen and nitrogen in the meantime 
are set free. 

Fire, like the rest of the elements, when properly used 
and controlled, is an excellent servant and assistant to 
man; but, when it obtains the mastery, it is, as we find 
from past and continued experience, a most terrible and 
ruthless tyrant, destructive alike to life and property, and 
perfectly indiscriminate in its ravages. The palace and 
the hovel, the old and the young, are equally open to its 
destructive influence. From a death by fire or burning, 
all mankind, whether civilized or savage, instinctively 
shrink, and with good reason, for no more fearful termina¬ 
tion can be put to the existence of man or beast than that 



HAND-BOOK OF MODERN STEAM FIRE-ENGINES. 29 


of burning; therefore it is the duty of all to do their best 
to prevent such catastrophes. 

In ancient times, as well as at the present day, fires and 
conflagrations were constantly occurring; and many of the 
cities and towns of the world have at different periods been 
either severely injured or totally destroyed. An idea of 
the frequency of fires and their disastrous effect may be 
obtained from the following by Juvenal, the Roman 
satirical poet, who lived in the first century of the Chris¬ 
tian era: 

“ But lo! the flames bring yonder mansion down ! 

The dire disaster echoes through the town ; 

Men look as if for solemn funeral clad, 

Now, now indeed these nightly fires are sad.” 

Fire was one of the most common and most destructive 
agents employed in ancient wars. When a city was 
besieged or assaulted, it was the first object with the assail¬ 
ants to protect their moving towers and battering engines 
from being consumed by fire, oil, pitch, or lighted arrows, 
thrown upon them from the ramparts. Every expedient 
that ingenuity could unfold was resorted to in the search 
for materials and devices to protect them; as not only the 
lives and property of the inhabitants, but often the desti¬ 
nies of armies, and even of nations, were on such occasions 
at stake. Men were especially trained to fire buildings, 
and, as they were experts in their profession, it is reasona¬ 
ble to conclude that the most perfect apparatus which 
could then be procured was employed both for destroying 
buildings by fire and also for preserving them. 

Fires and wars have ever been deemed the most awful 
of earthly calamities, and, unfortunately for mankind, 
they have too often been united, for warriors have gener¬ 
ally had recourse to the former to multiply the miseries 
3 * 





30 HAND-BOOK OF MODERN STEAM FIRE-ENGINES. 

of the latter; and in almost every age cities, like Jericho, 
Troy, Thebes, Carthage, and Athens, have been burnt with 
fire, and in many instances all the inhabitants destroyed 
therein. Some of the sublimest effusions of the prophets 
have reference to “firebrands, arrows, and death,” to 
“ blood and fire and pillars of smoke.” Even in modern 
times warriors have proved themsel ves to be the greatest 
incendiaries, and towns and cities have been wantonly and 
ruthlessly destroyed to gratify their avarice or ambition. 
As nearly every calamity that befalls mankind is con¬ 
verted by some men to their own advantage, so the 
numerous fires in ancient times led to the detestable 
practice of speculating on the distresses they occasioned. 
Thus, many covetous persons gleaned wealth from war 
and fires by making it a business to buy houses that were 
on fire, as well as the adjacent buildings, which they com¬ 
monly got at a low price on account of the fear and dis¬ 
tress of the owners about the event. The avarice of such 
persons led to their own destruction in numerous in¬ 
stances. 

Greek Fire. — The chemicals which constituted this in¬ 
fernal substance are among the lost arts, and consequently 
unknown to the chemist or scientist of the present day. 
But by Beckman, and others who investigated the subject, 
it is represented as a liquid, and was principally employed 
in naval combats. It was commonly enclosed in jars, and 
thrown on the decks of hostile vessels, and was also blown 
through iron and copper tubes, and “spurted,” from 
syringes and force-pumps. Its effects on those upon whom 
it was thrown seem to have resembled those produced by 
alcohol, spirits of turpentine, petroleum or benzine, as, 
instead of water having the effect of quenching it, it only 
aggravated its fury and increased its violence. 

A large fire, especially among inflammable material, is 







HAND-BOOK CF MODERN STEAM FIRE-ENGINES. 31 

an awful sight, and one usually as ruinous and fatal in its 
results as it is magnificent in appearance. In a few hours 
the labor of a lifetime, or even of a generation disappears, 
leaving in its place a shapeless, useless mass of ruins. If 
we possessed correct statistics of the number of fires, their 
causes, the value of property destroyed, and the number 
of lives sacrificed, it would present a most appalling record, 
the calm study of which would scarcely fail to make peo¬ 
ple both wiser and more careful in their dealings with this 
destructive element. 

It is a noteworthy fact, that up to the present time, 
the tendency of fires is to become more numerous, of far 
greater extent than formerly, and to cause more severe 
losses ; whilst the means of controlling them does not seem 
to increase, even though the steam-engine has been suc¬ 
cessfully employed as an assistant. This goes to show the 
necessity and importance of having the origin of every 
fire thoroughly investigated. It has been established, both 
by experience and observation, that fires have a tendency 
to outstrip the population in all large cities, and rapidly 
increasing communities, which would warrant the conclu¬ 
sion, that a population distributed over several towns is 
less liable to outbreaks of fire than the same population 
brought together within the compass of one town. To ex¬ 
plain this social phenomenon, it may be claimed, that it 
arises from the great density of the population in large 
towns compared with that of small oues; though, on the 
other hand, it might be asserted that this very density 
was an element of protection; as in a populous district, 
fires would be more liable to be discovered in their incip¬ 
ient state. 

There are circumstances connected with the furnishing of 
houses, the storage of goods in houses and elsewhere, and 
the general hurry and pressure of metropolitan life, which 











32 HAND-BOOK OF MODERN STEAM FIRE-ENGINES. 

involve contingencies more favorable to the occurrence of 
fires than are likely to be found in many country towns. 
There is also the circumstance that large cities have large 
buildings, so that fires in such localities are liable to be 
not only numerous, but extensive. 

Fires in numerous instances are said to be accidental, 
but on investigation it would be found, in most cases, that 
they were the result of sheer carelessness, and owe their 
origin to such agencies as kindling fires with oil, allowing 
the flues of heaters to come in contact with the woodwork 
in buildings, or the ends of joists to communicate with 
chimneys, the employment of candles or other naked 
flames in buildings where petroleum, camphene, benzine, 
gasoline, spirits of turpentine, etc., have been stored, or are 
transferred from one vessel to another for the purpose of 
sale or carriage. Reading in bed, friction matches left 
within the reach of mice, or lighted pipes and cigars being 
brought in close proximity to combustible and inflammable 
material, are also the source of many a conflagration. 
Placing stoves on sheet-iron, without any non-conducting 
substance between it and the floor to hinder the heat from 
passing into the wood, may be added to the list. Such 
carelessness amounts to wilful negligence, and ought to be 
subjected to the same penalties as incendiarism,for which 
reason, from the earliest ages, we find provision made for 
restitution or punishment, according to the origin of the 
fire. 

Incendiary fires are more difficult to deal with than 
accidental ones. Although the law is very severe when¬ 
ever an incendiary is discovered, still, as long as there is 
thought to be sufficient inducement to compensate for the 
risk, such fires will occur; but it is also highly probable that 
the setting on foot of a strict investigation into the causes 
of all fires will considerably circumscribe the work of the 











HAND-BOOK OF MODERN STEAM FIRE-ENGINES. 33 

incendiary. All laws for the punishment of incendiarism 
ought to be enforced with rigorous severity, as no punish¬ 
ment is too severe for the execrable wretch who would 
wantonly endanger the lives of his fellow-beings, or doom 
hundreds of needy people to poverty and distress by de¬ 
stroying their means of support. Wilfulness and careless¬ 
ness are the two best allies of the fire-king, through whose 
influence he often exceeds his bounds. 

Fires can never be entirely prevented, as the causes of 
their origin are so numerous and varied ; and as in all 
large cities and manufacturing communities there is a con¬ 
stant exposure to fire, in consequence of much of the ma¬ 
terial and manufactured products being of an inflammable 
character, to drive out these manufactures would be tan¬ 
tamount to the population going out themselves, because, 
when any community ceases to encourage and protect 
manufacturing interests, they cease to be important; or 
when they determine upon absolute safety, they must either 
cripple or materially interfere with some of the most valu¬ 
able and productive industries. Instead of so doing, it is 
their duty to be more vigilant and careful in investigating 
the causes of all fires, and in the general diffusion of 
knowledge relating to certain materials and processes, and 
in this way to determine how such occurrences may be 
guarded against in the future. 

Strange as it may seem, it is nevertheless a fact, that the 
lesson taught by terrible conflagrations has very seldom 
any durable results, as the experience of Portland, Boston, 
Baltimore, and Chicago taught no new moral, and was soon 
forgotten, at least by builders. After a devastating fire 
has baffled all attempts to resist it, the makers of iron 
safes are stimulated to devise something more secure than 
was before known. After a burglary of more than usual 
skill, another order of ingenuity is set to work to oppose 

C 








34 HAND-BOOK OF MODERN STEAM FIRE-ENGINES. 

more successfully the drill, the chisel, the crowbar, and the 
sledge-hammer; and the locksmiths are expected to do 
their own part of the work by producing fastenings that 
will defy picking and resist explosives. But with build¬ 
ers and owners of property the case is quite different, as, 
after disastrous fires, things soon drop into the same old 
ruts as before; in fact, it is very rare that any voluntary im¬ 
provements result from the experience so expensively pur¬ 
chased. For this reason provision should be made in all 
building laws, that any owner, architect, builder or work¬ 
man who would wilfully violate, or even negligently fail 
to comply with the provisions of the law, should be held 
responsible, and subjected to penalties in accordance with 
the degree of culpability. 

PRECAUTIONS AGAINST FIRES. 

In case of fires occurring in dwelling-houses where the 
inmates are awake, there can be no reason to doubt that, 
if some simple and ready means of suppressing the fire at 
its first start were at hand, and used immediately with en¬ 
ergy, many of the disastrous conflagrations which are of 
daily occurrence might be averted ; but, unfortunately, as 
a general rule, too much faith is placed in the ability of 
others, and too little in ourselves; consequently, we fail to 
provide ourselves with some ready and simple means of 
suppressing the fire in its early stages, and thereby run 
the risk of the destruction, in many cases, of valuable 
property. A bucket or two of water thrown on a fire on 
its first discovery, will in many instances extinguish it; but 
if not done quickly and promptly, it may require thousands 
of gallons, or even tons of water to put it out. It is too 
much the custom to neglect to provide against the chances 
of fire, simply for the reason that parties never had a fire 








HAND-BOOK OF MODERN STEAM' FIRE-ENGINES. 


35 


occur in their house, or on their premises. Did the par¬ 
ties alone who neglect to provide against fires, experience 
its terrible ravages, it might be said that, to a certain ex¬ 
tent, they deserved it; but unfortunately, in many in¬ 
stances, such fires extend to others, who were both prudent 
and cautious in guarding against fires, and who are ill 
able to bear its ruinous effects. 

Very few property or factory owners make adequate 
provision for extinguishing fires that may occur on their 
own premises ; and even if they do, such apparatus is gen¬ 
erally capable of rendering very little service. Though 
it might originally be very efficient, when allowed to fall 
into disuse, as often happens, it becomes worthless. Long 
immunity from the ravages of fire generally causes a dim¬ 
inution in the attention bestowed on fire-engines and appli¬ 
ances provided for its suppression, and it frequently hap¬ 
pens, when required for use, that the machines in which 
the utmost reliance was placed are found to be nearly 
useless. Instead of this state of affairs, no pains should be 
spared to excite and keep up an active interest in all kinds 
of apparatus provided for the extinguishment of fires. 
Machines of any kind, if allowed to fall into disuse, dete¬ 
riorate more rapidly than if frequently used. None but 
the best class of machines should be provided for extin¬ 
guishing fires, and they should be kept up to the highest 
point of efficiency, regardless of cost, and be in the hands 
and under the control of persons capable of using them in 
case of an emergency. 

The first cost of providing reliable and efficient means 
for the controlling and extinguishing of fires, should be 
esteemed a secondary consideration, seeing that the exist¬ 
ence of such means, especially if available when wanted, 
and of the required power to prevent a fire from extend¬ 
ing and becoming unmanageable, will in almost every 





36 HAND-BOOK OF MODERN STEAM FIRE-ENGINES. 

case more than repay their original cost. The right way, 
perhaps, to reconcile the cost of providing valuable fire 
apparatus, for either public or private use, would be to 
look at the damage done by a terrible fire, in a case where 
means had not been provided for extinguishing it; or, if 
provided, were found to be inefficient or worthless, and 
then feel that, had the means been provided and kept in 
proper order, all that loss might have been prevented. 

Even when ample and efficient apparatus has been pro¬ 
vided for extinguishing fires in factories, stores, and ware¬ 
houses, they are, in many instances, incapable of render¬ 
ing any service, in consequence of being injudiciously 
located. Fire-pumps or fire-extinguishers of any kind 
should never be placed where they would be liable to be 
consumed in the early stages of a fire, or where access to 
them may be cut off, or where, in cousequence of the heat 
and danger induced by the fire, it would be impossible to 
manage them. Any machine or apparatus intended for 
extinguishing fires should be placed outside of the build¬ 
ings or property which they are intended to protect. 

WHAT TO DO IN CASE OF FIRE. 

The hurry and excitement incidental to the sudden out¬ 
break of a fire, and the almost universal want of presence 
of mind and judgment caused thereby, are no small addi¬ 
tions to this terrible and often fatal calamity. Phin, in 
his excellent little work on accidents, says, “ Few things 
have been more praised than presence of mind ; ” and cer¬ 
tainly there is nothing that is more to be desired in case 
of accident. The person that keeps cool can always be 
depended upon to render efficient assistance; while he who 
is liable to become excited and get into a hurry, can never 
hope to be of any use. Slowness and hesitation are to be 















HAND-BOOK OF MODERN STEAM FIRE-ENGINES. 37 


condemned quite as much as hurry and excitement. It is 
deliberate haste that is needed. The work that is done in 
a hurry is not done at all; for it is done in such a bung¬ 
ling manner that it will generally have to be done over 
again, thus involving the loss of much valuable time, and 
frequently much suffering. For these reasons, every one 
who would cheerfully render assistance to others in case 
of accident, should learn how to keep cool. 

The most powerful means of enabling any person to 
keep cool under trying circumstances, is a thorough 
knowledge of what is to be done. The person who knows 
exactly what to do is, by virtue of his or her knowledge, 
perfectly self-reliant. They therefore find no difficulty in 
keeping cool; for hurry and excitement arise, in a large 
measure, from ignorance and anxiety. Therefore every 
person should be well acquainted with the various modes 
of escape, both above and below, which are offered by the 
dwelling in which he resides. If a trap-door leads to the 
roof, a step-ladder should be permanently affixed thereto, 
as otherwise it will be liable to be out of the way when 
wanted. Some simple and reliable fire-escape should 
also be provided, and always kept in one convenient and 
accessible place ; and every member of the family, or in¬ 
mate of the building, should be made well acquainted with 
.the most safe and reliable mode of using it. 

When a fire breaks out at night, it is always best, if 
the danger be imminent, for persons not to stop to dress, 
but to wrap themselves in blankets or quilts, and avail 
themselves of the most convenient means of escape, being 
particular, in all cases, to close the doors after them. 

If persons are surprised while asleep, and on waking 
up find the room filled with smoke, it is always best, in 
their efforts to escape, to crawl on their hands and knees 
on the floor, as the smoke and hot air ascend. *nd is more 
4 


38 HAND-BOOK OF MODEKN STEAM FJKE-ENGINES. 

dense at the ceiling than at the floor. If the smoke is 
very suffocating, a piece of flannel, woollen shirt, or dress 
held over the mouth and nose, will protect the lungs from 
injury and prevent suffocation. 

If escape from the doors on the first floor and the trap¬ 
door on the roof be cut off* and no fire-escape at hand, it 
is always best to hurry all the inmates to the room least 
affected by the smoke and hot air, and hurriedly make a 
rope of sheets and bedding, attaching one end of it to a 
bed-post or bureau-leg, and by this means descend to the 
ground. Persons should never jump or precipitate them¬ 
selves from windows, unless they are satisfied that all other 
means of escape are unavailable; and should this become 
the only alternative, persons on the outside should hold a 
carpet or blanket, or even a fireman’s or policeman’s 
coat, for the person to jump on, so as to prevent loss of life 
or serious injury. 

If a person’s clothing takes fire, wrap a blanket or quilt 
around them quickly, for the purpose of excluding the 
air and smothering the fire. Woollen goods are prefer¬ 
able under such circumstances, as they are less combusti¬ 
ble than cotton; but in no case allow them to run out of 
doors or even in a draught, as the oxygen of the air intensi¬ 
fies the combustion, and of course causes the fire to burn 
more fiercely. 

9 

MEANS OF PREVENTING FIRES. 

All cil ies should have a restriction limiting the height 
of the buildings by the width of the streets, unless the 
exposures are properly guarded. In all large towns and 
cities, every new building should be planned and con¬ 
structed with reference to the use to which it is to be applied. 

All roofs should be required to be constructed of non- 






HAND-BOOK OF MODERN STEAM FIRE-ENGINES. 


39 


combustible materials in all cases where buildings arc over 
eighteen feet high. 

Certain provisions against the origin and spread of fires 
should in all cases b3 required in the construction of 
dwelling-houses and stores. 

All chimney-flues should be properly plastered on the 
inside, and the brickwork of proper thickness between the 
flue and the floor or studding. 

Instead of laying brick or stone on the planks to form 
hearths, they should be supported by brick arches. 

In putting in hot-air flues and registers, the precaution 
should be taken, to give a space of at least two inches 
between them and the nearest woodwork (four inches 
would be better); this space should be filled with some 
good non-conducting substance, such as soapstone or as¬ 
bestos. In stores and factories, hot-air flues, radiators, and 
steam-pipes should be placed at a safe distance from all 
woodwork, as they are prominent causes of fires when 
they are brought in close proximity to dry wood. 

As stairways, light-holes, and hoistways render the 
greatest facilities for the spread of flames when once 
started, the only effective way to overcome such danger 
is to enforce the necessity of closing them. 

Ail hatch- or hoistways should have doors of iron, or 
some other fire-proof material. 

Whenever studded partitions are used in the construc¬ 
tion of buildings, the space between the studs and the 
lathing should be well filled with bricks and mortar, for 
at least two feet above each floor. This will prevent the 
fire from running up between the studding and igniting 
the floors above. 

Every city and town should have strict laws prohibiting 
the storage of inflammable materials in thickly populated 
districts, or in locations where, in case they should become 


40 HAND-BOOK OF MODERN STEAM FIRE-ENGINES. 

ignited, they would endanger both life and property. 
There can be no reason why such materials should not be 
kept by themselves, in locations isolated to a certain extent 
from other buildings, and have sewers, drains, or ditches 
forming a communication between the buildings in which 
they are stored, with some river or brook, so that in case 
of fire or explosion, the burning oils, liquids, or spirits 
might pass off, and thereby prevent fearful destruction 
of property. 

DIFFERENT METHODS OF EXTINGUISHING FIRES. 

Numerous attempts have been made at different times 
to increase the efficiency of water by chemicals, for the 
purpose of extinguishing fires ; and also to extinguish fires 
“chemically ” by means of ammonia, or carbonic acid gas , 
etc., which can be used either dry or mixed with water or 
steam. But the idea, like many others, though sound in 
theory, is unfortunately not so in practice, as, when we see 
magnificent blocks of buildings lapped up as though it 
were by the tongue of the fire-fiend, and cities nearly ob¬ 
literated by the ruthless destroyer, in defiance of the most 
energetic and heroic efforts of the best-trained fire-brigades 
and the most powerful and efficient steam fire engines, the 
fanciful theories of the laboratory are apt to vanish. 

Still, some of these fire-annihilators possess merit, as 
they are always ready for use. All that is necessary to 
do is to take up the vessel, and direct the gas upon the 
burning matter, which will, in most instances, check its 
progress even more speedily than water applied with a 
bucket. Wilcox’s and Connelly’s patent fire-extinguishers 
—the former portable and the latter stationary—are said 
to have rendered efficient service in extinguishing embryo 
fires; but to rely on such contrivances for extinguishing 
fires in general would be very unwise. 











HAND-BOOK OF MODERN STEAM FIRE-ENGINES. 41 


The Wilcox Annihilator, though very efficient, is, in con¬ 
sequence of being portable, or capable of being managed 
by one person, very limited in its supply of gas, and of 
course unfit to cope with any formidable fire. The Con¬ 
nelly extinguisher being stationary, can be made of such 
proportions as to furnish an* almost unlimited supply of 
the gas ; and the pipes for its delivery may be protected 
from accident by carrying them underground, like any 
ordinary steam- or water-pipes. And such is the force of the 
gas issuing from these powerful machines, that it produces 
a current like that in the injector, which is capable of 
lifting water several feet from a well or main; although, 
according to the natural order of things, water and the 
steam fire-engine must ever be looked upon as the only 
reliable means of checking the progress of fire when once 
fairly started. Still, property owners, and people in general, 
should be made better acquainted with the use and man¬ 
agement of fire-annihiiators. 

The principle involved in the extinguishing of fires is 
precisely the same, whether “ carbonic acid gas ” or water 
is used; the “gas” shuts out the oxygen of the air from 
the combustible substance by acting as a covering to 
it; but, like steam, it can act only on the surface, and 
consequently can absorb but little of the heat. Water 
has the advantage of being capable of entering the com¬ 
bustible mass, which, on being converted into steam, takes 
away much of the heat, and therefore lessens the combus¬ 
tion ; of course, the cooler the water is, the more servicea¬ 
ble it is: but even hot water is more effective than “ car¬ 
bonic acid gas,” as it enters the fire, and, in consequence of 
not being as hot as the fire, takes away part of the heat. 

Steam is now very successfully employed as a fire-ex¬ 
tinguisher in mines, and situations where it can be con¬ 
fined. It has the effect of driving out the air, and 
4* 


42 HAND BOOK OF MODERN STEAM FIRE-ENGINES. 

consequently the oxygen which supports the fire; and when 
it comes in contact with the ignited materials, it has the 
effect of quickly cooling off the surface; but as it can only 
act on the surface, it is evident that the interior of the 
heated mass can cool but very slowly. In confined situa¬ 
tions, such as mines and close apartments, it is capable of 
smothering the fire, and thereby holding it in check until 
a fire-engine, or some other appliance, can be brought into 
a position to play on it. Steam is very efficient in extin¬ 
guishing choke-damp in mines, and also in condensing 
the smoke arising from fires in shafts and slopes. 

FIRE-ESCAPES. 

Nearly all the forms of fire-escapes used in modern times, 
or even at the present day, are similar to those employed 
by the ancients for the purpose of scaling walls and enter¬ 
ing fortresses in time of war, etc.; and it is reasonable to 
suppose that the same devices by which persons entered 
buildings would be employed for escaping from them. As 
the utmost ingenuity of the ancients was exercised in de¬ 
vising the means to accomplish the one, it is exceedingly 
natural that modern inventors should hit upon similar 
contrivances to effect the other. 

Fire-escapes in ancient times embraced a great variety 
of forms, among which were ladders, rope and leather, and 
also folding ladders of wood and metal,—some of the latter 
consisting of numerous pieces screwed in each other by 
the person ascending, till he reached the required eleva¬ 
tion. Others with rollers at their upper ends to facilitate 
their elevation; baskets or chests containing several per¬ 
sons, raised perpendicularly on a moving frame by means 
of a screw below, that pushed out several hollow frames 
or tubes contained within each other, like those of a tele- 



HAND-BOOK OF MODERN STEAM FIRE-ENGINES. 


43 


scope, whose united length reached to the top of the place 
attached; sometimes men were elevated in baskets sus¬ 
pended at the long end of a lever or swape. 

The subject of fire-escapes is a very important one, and 
one which should occupy the attention of legislators and 
all those who take an interest in the lives of their fellow 
beings. There is no reason why proprietors or occupants 
of high buildings should not be compelled to provide 
means of escape for their employees in case of fire, than 
that owners of steamships should be required to make 
provisions for the safety of their passengers in case of 
accident. 

The invention and improvement of fire-escapes have not 
received in the past that attention from inventors and 
ingenious mechanics that has been devoted to contrivances 
of far less importance. What is needed is a cheap, con¬ 
venient, and reliable fire-escape, one that could be easily 
managed by either man or woman ; such a contrivance 
could not fail to amply remunerate its inventor. 

FIRE-PROOF BUILDINGS. 

The construction of fire-proof buildings has long 
been a favorite idea with architects and owners of prop¬ 
erty, and one on which no small amount of thought has 
been bestowed ; but the recent terrible conflagrations at 
Baltimore, Boston, and Chicago demonstrated the fact 
that no building yet constructed is safe from the ravages 
of fire, if it contains inflammable materials, even though 
it may be constructed in the most substantial manner. It 
is a noteworthy fact, that many of the most destructive 
fires that have occurred in this country of late years, orig¬ 
inated in so-called fire proof buildings; and instead of 
offering any safeguard to the goods they contained, they 


44 HAND-BOOK OF MODERN STEAM FIRE-ENGINES. 

proved to offer an obstacle against the speedy extinguish¬ 
ment of the fire. 

Scientific men have been unable, up to the present time, 
to discover any material capable of withstanding the 
ravages of fire. This arises from the fact that there is no 
known substance in nature that is incombustible, or that 
is not influenced by heat and cold. Stone splits and 
crumbles under the combined action of heat and water; 
brickwork, even of the most substantial character, when 
exposed to the extreme heat of large fires, bulges and 
cracks, and even crumbles to dust; iron, whether wrought 
or cast, when exposed to high temperatures, expands, and 
either pushes or pulls down the buildings of which it was 
intended to be the main stay. 

Though the desirability and importance of fire-proof 
buildings cannot for a moment be denied, yet experience 
has shown that the most scientifically constructed and 
substantial buildings are as frequently doomed to destruc¬ 
tion as those of a less expensive character. Now, in view 
of the foregoing facts, the question would naturally be 
asked, is there any real safety from fires? and the answer 
would be, that while it is wise and prudent to construct 
all buildings in a safe and substantial manner, immunity 
from fire does not depend so much on the character of the 
building, as it does on the vigilance and watchfulness ex¬ 
ercised in preventing it. 

LOSSES BY FIRE. 

When buildings are burned, the remark is frequently 
heard that they are covered by insurance, and that the 
proprietors or owners of a building or factory will receive 
nearly its equivalent, or have the building restored, which 
will incur only a temporary loss; but this is a narrow view 


HAND-BOOK OF MODERN STEAM FIRE-ENGINES. 


45 


to take of the subject, as it does not take into account the 
losses and sufferings caused by the suspension of business, 
resulting in the throwing out of employment, in many in¬ 
stances, thousands of hands, and perhaps ending in failure, 
or even bankruptcy. In such cases the evil falls on the 
least able to bear it, namely, the workers or employees, as 
they are deprived frequently for a long time, owing to the 
confusion incident to such disasters, of an opportunity of 
earning the means of subsistence, and are in many in¬ 
stances reduced to great poverty and suffering. 

It is very seldom that buildings are insured to anything 
like their full value, consequently the interruption of 
business, the difference between the value of property de¬ 
stroyed and the amount of insurance, entail a far greater 
loss to any community than the advantages to be gained 
by the reconstruction of the building. Therefore it is the 
duty of all to be vigilant in guarding against fire, as 
industries of every description are so interwoven in their 
relations, that the loss sustained by one class of business 
men, manufacturers, or mechanics, affects the whole. 








46 


HAND-BOOK OK MODERN STEAM FIRE-ENGINES. 





AHRENS’ STEAM FIRE-ENGINE, 









































HAND BOOK OF MODERN STEAM FIRE-ENGINES. 


47 


• AHEEES’ STEAM EIEE-EEGIEE. 

The cut on the opposite page represents the cele¬ 
brated Ahrens Steam Fire-Engine, manufactured by the 
Ahrens Mfg. Co., of Cincinnati, Ohio. The boiler of this 
engine is an upright; but, with that exception, it differs 
from any other ever used for the same purpose. It con¬ 
sists of a steam- and water-space, which forms the fire-box, 
inside of which is securely fastened a coil, through which 
the feed-water is forced; thus giving an abundance of 
heating surface, without any danger of burning the parts 
most exposed to the fire; and as the coil has plenty of 
room in which to expand and contract, it obviates the 
evils resulting from undue strains induced by unequal 
expansion and contraction. The water is supplied to the 
coil by a pump, which makes a forced circulation — this 
being the quickest way known to make steam; and has 
the additional advantage of never allowing any sediment 
or scale to collect in the tubes, which must necessarily 
increase the durability of the boiler. The shells are cylin¬ 
drical, and are made of the best steel-plate and the most 
excellent workmanship. They are very efficient, as steam 
can be raised on them from cold water in from three to 
four minutes. 

The engine is upright, double-acting ; the steam-cylinder 
resting on columns which are attached to the frame and 
to the boiler, and form supports for the crank-shaft bear¬ 
ings. The frame encircles the boiler on each side, extend¬ 
ing as far as the forward axle in front, and forming a 
support for the fuel-box in the rear. The pump is at¬ 
tached to the frame in front of the boiler, and is very con¬ 
veniently arranged, as by taking off the bottom plate 
the valves can be taken out, either for examination or 
repairs, without any trouble. The receiving-screw is lo¬ 
cated in the pump-bottom, near the boiler, to which the 




48 


HAND-BOOK OF MODERN STEAM FIRE-ENGINES. 


suction hose is always attached. The discharge gates are 
in front, directly under the air-vessel. 

A new and very important feature of this engine is the 
air-pump, which is used for keeping the air-vessel con¬ 
stantly supplied with air, which has the effect of rendering 
the hose quite steady when the engine is working. The 
Ahrens’ steam fire-engines have an excellent reputation 
for durability, efficiency, and economy. They are in very 
general use in the Western States, and give entire satisfac¬ 
tion. Each engine is furnished with a full supply of the 
most improved and necessary attachments. 

AIR. 

The atmosphere is known to extend at least 45 miles 
above the earth. Its aggregate weight has been calcu¬ 
lated at upwards of 77,000,000,000 of tons, or equivalent 
to the weight of a solid globe of lead 60 miles in diameter. 
Hence this enormous weight reposes incessantly upon the 
earth’s surface, and upon every object — animate or inani¬ 
mate, solid, liquid, or aeriform. 100 cubic inches of air, 
at the surface of the earth, when the barometer stands at 
34 inches, and at a temperature of 60° Fall., weigh about 
31 grains; being thus about 815 times lighter than watqr, 
and 11,065 times lighter than mercury. 

The component parts of the air are about 79 measures 
of nitrogen gas, and 21 of oxygen ; or, in other words, air 
consists of, by volume, oxygen, 21 parts; nitrogen, 79 
parts. By weight, oxygen, 77 parts; nitrogen, 23 parts. 

Now since the air is possessed of weight, it must be 
evident that a cubic foot of air at the surface of the earth, 
has to support the weight of all the air directly above it; 
and that, therefore, the higher we ascend in the atmos¬ 
phere the lighter will be the cubic foot of air; or, in other 
words, the farther from the surface of the earth, the 



HAND-BOOK OF MODERN STEAM FIRE-ENGINES. 49 


less will be the density of the air. At the height of three 
and a half miles it is known that the atmospheric air is 
only half as dense as it is at the surface of the earth. 

From the nature of fluids, it follows that the atmos¬ 
phere presses against any body with which it comes in 
contact—because fluids exert a pressure in all directions— 
upwards, downwards, sidewise, and oblique. Its particles 
are so inconceivably minute that they enter all sub¬ 
stances— even liquids. It penetrates all the ramifica¬ 
tions and innermost recesses of porous bodies, and is 
mixed up with and circulates in the blood of men and 
animals; and, by the pressure of its superincumbent 
strata, it is urged through almost every substance. It is 
this circulation through the interior of the bodies of men 
and animals which counterbalances its outer pressure; be¬ 
cause, if its weight were not neutralized, neither man nor 
beast could walk, and would be as mute as statues of lead, 
as the lips once closed could never again be opened. 

The amount of pressure of a column of air whose base 
is one square foot, and whose altitude is the height of the 
atmosphere, has been found to be 2156 pounds, avoirdu¬ 
pois, or very nearly 15 pounds of pressure on every 
square inch. Consequently, it is common to state the 
pressure cff the atmosphere as equal to 15 pounds on the 
square inch. If any other gaseous body or vapor — such 
as steam — exerts a pressure equivalent to 15 pounds on 
the square inch, then the force of that vapor is said to be 
equal to one atmosphere. If the vapor be equal to 30 
pounds on every square inch, then it is equal to two atmos¬ 
pheres, and so on ; consequently, the atmospheric pressure 
is capable of supporting about 30 inches of mercury, or a 
column of water 34 feet high. 

It is known that the pressure of the atmosphere is not 
constant, even at the same place. At the equator, the 
pressure is nearly constant, but is subject to the greater 
5 D 


50 HAND-BOOK OF MODERN STEAM FIRE-ENGINES. 

change in the high latitudes. In some countries the press¬ 
ure of the atmosphere varies so much as to support a 
column of mercury so low as 28 inches, and at other 
times so high as 31, the mean being 29.5; thus making 
the average pressure between 14 and 15 pounds on the 
square inch. But in scientific books, generally, the press¬ 
ure is understood, in round numbers, to be 15 pounds ; so 
that a pressure exerted equal to 1, 2, 3, 4, etc., atmos¬ 
pheres, means such a pressure as would support 30, 60, 90, 
120, etc., inches of mercury in a perpendicular column, or 
15, 30, 45, 60, etc., pounds on every square inch. 

The pressure of the air differs at different altitudes, e.g. 
at 7 miles above the surface of the earth the air is 4 times 
lighter than it is at the surface; at 14 miles, it is 16 times 
lighter, and at 21 miles, it is 64 times lighter. It requires 
13.817 cubic feet of air to make one pound ; consequently, 
one cubic foot of air at the surface of the earth weighs 527 
grains, or 1-ounce, avoirdupois ; but under a pressure of 51 
tons to the square inch, air becomes as dense, and would 
weigh as much per cubic foot, as water. 

TABLE 

SHOWING THE WEIGHT OF THE ATMOSPHERE IN POUNDS, AVOIR¬ 
DUPOIS, ON ONE SQUARE INCH, CORRESPONDING WITH DIFFER¬ 
ENT HEIGHTS OF THE BAROMETER, FROM 28 INCHES TO 31 
INCHES, VARYING BY TENTHS OF AN INCH. 


Barometer 
in Inches. 

Atmosphere 
in Pounds. 

Barometer 
in Inches. 

Atmosphere 
in Pounds. 

Barometer 
in Inches. 

Atmosphere 
in Pounds. 

28.0 

13.72 

29.1 

14.26 

30.1 

14.75 

28.1 

13.77 

9Q 9 

14.31 

30.2 

14.80 

28.2 

13.82 

29.3 

14.36 

30.3 

14.85 

28.3 

13.87 

29.4 

14.41 

30.4 

14.90 

28.4 

13.92 

29.5 

14.46 

30.5 

14.95 

28.5 

13.97 

29.6 

14.51 

30.6 

15.00 

28.6 

14.02 

29.7 

14.56 

30.7 

15.05 

28.7 

14.07 

29.8 

14.61 

30.8 

15.10 

28.8 

14.12 

29.9 

14.66 

30.9 

15.15 

28.9 

14.17 

30.0 

14.70 

31.0 

15.19 

29.0 

14.21 




































HAND-BOOK OF MODERN STEAM FIRE-ENGINES. 51 


A column of atmosphere 45 miles high, and one square 
inch in area, just balances, and consequently weighs the 
same as a column of mercury of like area and 30 inches 
high. This column of air also balances 33§ feet of water. 
Consequently, a column of air 45 miles high, 30 inches of 
mercury, and 33| feet of water, weigh the same. 

Suppose it were possible to erect a tube having a 
sectional area of one square inch upon any part of the 
earth, and that this tube be long enough to reach up to the 
height of the atmosphere (which is supposed to be about 
45 miles), the air contained in such a tube would weigh 
about 14f pounds. Now, if we take another tube, having 
the same sectional area, and place 14| pounds of water in 
it, the level of the water will be found to be 33| feet 
above the bottom of the tube. If we take still another 
tube of the same area, and place 14f pounds of mercury 
in it, the level of the mercury will stand 30 inches above 
its base. 

1 atmosphere, or 15 pounds) OA . , ~ 

1 \ 1 >- = 30 inches ot mercury, 

per square inch, ) 

Each pound pressure 
per square inch 

Each pound pressure) i • , . • , 

1 \ f = 1 inch rise on siphon-gauge. 

per square inch ) 

1 atmosphere, 15 pounds 
per square inch, 

Each pound pressure j = 27 , inehes of water uearly . 
per square inch ) 

Air, like all other gases, expands but one volume for 
each 493° of temperature through which it is raised, and 
in order to double its volume, we must raise it 493° more, 
which will bring it to a temperature of 986° Fall. 


| = 33| feet of water. 


} 


= 2 inches of mercury. 




52 HAND-BOOK OF MODERN STEAM FIRE-ENGINES. 


T A B L E 

SHOWING THE EXPANSION OF AIR BY HEAT, AND THE INCREASE 
IN BULK IN PROPORTION TO INCREASE OF TEMPERATURE. 


it. 

32 

Freezing-point. 

Bulk. 

1000 

Fahrenheit. 
Temp. 75 

Temperate. 

Bulk. 

1099 

33 

<< 

1002 

U 

76 

Summer heat... 

1101 

34 

it 

1004 

U 

77 

U 

1104 

33 

ii 

1007 

u 

78 

it 

1106 

36 

a 

1009 

u 

79 

(( 

1108 

37 

a 

1012 

u 

80 

u 

1110 

38 

u 

1015 

u 

81 

it 

1112 

39 

a 

1018 

u 

82 

a 

1114 

40 

a 

1021 

a 

83 

u 

1116 

41 

a 

1023 

u 

84 

a 

1118 

42 

u 

1025 

u 

85 

a 

1121 

43 

a 

1027 

u 

86 

u 

1123 

44 

a 

1030 

u 

87 

it 

1125 

45 

a 

1032 

a 

88 

a 

1128 

46 

a 

1034 

u 

89 

u 

1130 

47 

ii 

1036 

u 

90 

a 

1132 

48 

it 

1038 

u 

91 

a 

1134 

49 

ii 

1040 

u 

92 

n 

1136 

50 

a 

1043 

(6 

93 

u 

1138 

51 

a 

1045 

(C 

94 

n 

1140 

52 

a 

1047 

(( 

95 

a 

1142 

53 

a 

1050 

U 

96 

Blood-heat. 

1144 

54 

a 

1052 

U 

97 

it 

1146 

55 

a 

1055 

it 

98 

it 

1148 

56 

Temperate. 

1057 

it 

99 

it 

1150 

57 

a 

1059 

u 

100 

a 

1152 

58 

a 

1062 

a 

110 

Fever heat 112 

1173 

59 

a 

1064 

u 

120 

it 

1194 

60 

a 

1066 

u 

130 

a 

1215 

61 

a 

1069 

u 

140 

a 

1235 

62 

a 

1071 

u 

150 

a 

1255 

63 

a 

1073 

u 

160 

a 

1275 

64 

a 

1075 

u 

170 

Spirits boil 176 

1295 

65 

a 

1077 

a 

180 

a 

1315 

66 

u 

1080 

a 

190 

a 

1334 

67 

a 

1082 

n 

200 

it 

1364 

68 

ii 

1084 

u 

210 

a 

1372 

69 

a 

1087 

a 

212 

Water boils 

1375 

70 

a 

1089 

it 

302 

a 

1558 

71 

u 

1091 

a 

392 

a 

1739 

72 

u 

1093 

a 

482 

a 

1919 

73 

a 

1095 

it 

572 

a 

2098 

74 

u 

1097 

u 

680 

a 

2312 











HAND-BOOK OF MODERN STEAM FIRE-ENGINES. 53 


ELASTIC FLUIDS. 

Elastic fluids are divided into two classes — permanent 
gases and vapors. The gases cannot be converted into 
the liquid state by any known process of art; whereas the 
vapors are readily reduced to the liquid form by pressure 
or diminution of temperature. In respect of their me¬ 
chanical properties there is, however, no essential differ¬ 
ence between the two classes. Elastic fluids, in a state of 
equilibrium, are subject to the action of two forces; 
namely, gravity, and a molecular force acting from par¬ 
ticle to particle. But, in order that all the parts of an 
elastic fluid may be in equilibrium, one condition only is 
necessary; namely, that the elastic force be the same at 
every point situated in the same horizontal plane. This 
condition is likewise necessary to the equilibrium of 
liquids, and the same circumstances give rise to it in both 
cases; namely, the mobility of the particles, and the action 
of gravity upon them. 

The density of bodies being inversely as their volumes, 
the law of Mariotte may be otherwise expressed by saying 
the density of an elastic fluid is directly proportional to 
the pressure it sustains. Under the pressure of a single 
atmosphere, the density of air is about the 770th part of 
that of water; whence it follows that, under the pressure 
of 770 atmospheres, air is as dense as water. 

The average atmospheric pressure being thus equal to 
that of a column of water of about 32 feet in altitude at 
the bottom of the sea, at the depth of 24,640 (equals 770 
multiplied by 32) feet, or 4§ miles, air would be heavier 
than water; and though it should still remain in a gaseous 
state, it would be incapable of rising to the surface. 

5* 



54 HAND-BOOK OF MODERN STEAM FIRE-ENGINES. 


AIR-VESSELS. 

The object of an air-vessel on a pump is to cause a 
better supply of water to the pump, by holding a body of 
water near to it, and by making the supply of water more 
uniform and continuous. Consequently, it should be made 
as long in the neck as would be considered consistent with 
good proportions, so that the water, in passing through the 
pump-barrel to the delivery-pipe, could not be forced up 
into the chamber, as, if such should be the case, the air in 
the chamber is soon absorbed by the water, and conse¬ 
quently the supply of water is diminished. Great as are the 
advantages derived from the use of the air-vessels, they 
often become actually injurious; for, when no advantage 
is derived from the elasticity of the confined air, the water 
is impeded in its progress, and as a result its volume is 
diminished. 

Upon the trial of fire-engines, it not unfrequentlv oc¬ 
curs that they throw the water higher the first few strokes, 
than when they have been working some time. This is 
usually attributed to numerous causes, such as obstructions 
in the pipes, grit or sand under the valves; but, on in¬ 
vestigation, it would be more frequently found to be the 
result of an imperfect air-chamber. The air often makes 
its escape through minute leaks in the chamber; and when 
this occurs, the space once occupied by the air becomes 
filled with the liquid, which not only interferes with the 
free delivery of the water, but subjects the engine to a 
very severe strain, which is generally made manifest by 
heavy laboring and loud knocking in the pump. When 
long suction-pipes are attached to an engine or pump 
which is running at a moderate speed, sufficient air is 
drawn in to supply that taken up by the water; but 



HAND-BOOK OF MODERN STEAM FIRE-ENGINES. 55 


when an engine or pump runs at very high speed, the air 
in,the vessel is liable to be either expelled or condensed. 

An air-vessel on a suction-pipe is very beneficial, as it 
frequently happens in cities that the small head of water 
in the street mains, and the small pipes used to bring 
water, prevent a sufficient supply from reaching the pump. 
The result of this is, that the pump does not do half the 
work of which it is theoretically capable; for this reason, 
the addition of an air-chamber below the pump keeps a 
constant stream flowing to the pump, and at the same 
time acts as a reservoir, from which the pump may draw 
a supply at each stroke. 

The position of the air-vessel on an engine or pump, 
and its proportions, form, and the mode of its attachment, 
will affect the working of the engine or pump in no small 
degree; the mode in which the water enters and leaves the 
vessel also influences its usefulness. 

!n cases where it is manifest that the air-vessel leaks, 
and it is found impossible to determine the precise loca¬ 
tion, if some soapsuds be rubbed with the hand on the 
outside of the vessel, when the engine is working, the 
bubbles raised by the escaping air will indicate the place 
where the air escapes. 

There does not appear to be any rule by which to de¬ 
termine the capacity of air-vessels for steam fire-engines 
and fire-pumps; but experience has shown that the air- 
vessels of steam fire-engines should not have less than 
twenty times the cubic contents of the water-cylinder. 
For ordinary steam-pumps, four times the cubic contents 
of the cylinder will answer. Of course, the larger the air- 
vessel the easier the pump will work, but the more expen¬ 
sive the air-vessel will be, as, when the diameter of any 
cylinder is increased, the necessity of increasing the thick¬ 
ness also arises. 



THE IMPROVED CLAPP & JONES’ STEAM FIRE-ENGINE. 






























































































































































































































































HAND-BOOK OF MODERN STEAM FIRE-ENGINES. 


57 


CLAPP AND JONES STEAM FIRE-ENGINE. 

The cut on the opposite page represents the Im¬ 
proved Clapp and Jones Steam Fire-Engine. —The 

boiler is vertical, with fire- and water-tubes. The fire- 
tubes extend from the crown sheet of the fire-box up 
through the top of the shell. The water-tubes, the prin¬ 
cipal feature of this boiler, in form are sectional coils, 
suspended from the crown, and terminating in the legs 
after making one turn around the fire-box. There are six 
of these coils in each circular row. The number of rows 
being determined by the size of the boiler and the steam 
required. 

Attention is directed to the mode of securing the ends 
of these water-tubes to the crown and side sheets of the 
fire-box. This is accomplished by means of unions or 
couplings, so constructed of different kinds of metal as to 
preclude the possibility, in their make-up, of two pieces of 
iron coming in contact to corrode and stick fast, thereby 
doing away with the danger of destroying any part of 
either the union or tube forming the sections, so that they 
could not be replaced again, should it become necessary, 
from any cause, to remove them from their position. 

This boiler possesses the requisites incident to safety in 
its construction, economy of fuel and quick steam being 
insured in its design, which affords free circulation of the 
water in contact with the heated surfaces. 

Another good feature, it will not foam or prime during 
the most excessive firing, consequently no danger of becom¬ 
ing overheated or burned. Either fresh or salt water can 
be used without inconvenience in generating steam. 

The boiler is made of the best material, and in the 
most substantial and workmanlike manner, and arranged 
to admit of easy examination, repairs or renewal of any 
of the parts. 


58 


HAND-BOOK OF MODERN STEAM FIRE-ENGINES. 


The Engines are either horizontal or vertical, and of 
that class commonly termed “ piston engines,” so arranged 
that the connection between cylinders, steam and water is 
direct, the pump and steam pistons working simultane¬ 
ously through rigid connections. 

It is claimed for this principle, economy in the use of 
steam, little friction compared with engines having shafts 
and gears, or cranks and connecting rods, through which 
the power of the steam piston is transferred to the pump. 
Requiring, in consequence of the lack of these things, less 
fuel, oil and repairs; wear and tear being reduced to a 
minimum, due to simplicity of construction, there being 
few wearing surfaces. 

The work of friction in this engine is really no greater 
while working through a long line of hose or when doing 
the hardest service, than when performing the lightest. 

The pump is of novel construction and is made entirely 
of a composition having high tensile strength, as are also 
the pins, rods, etc., with no iron parts to rust. The piston 
is self-packing, requiring no leathers or other artificial 
means to keep it tight and in working order ; it is, there¬ 
fore, comparatively frictionless, enabling the engine to 
maintain a high rate of speed and high pressure for very 
long runs without the danger incident to pumps having 
their pistons or plungers otherwise constructed. 

The pump heads are cages fitted with inlet and outlet 
valves of simple construction, their elasticity being suffi¬ 
cient to quickly and firmly seat them without the neces¬ 
sity of using the spiral springs, as is generally the practice 
in pumping machinery. The form of opening in the 
heads, together with the power and lift of valves, insures 
ease in the flow of water into and out of the pumps, and 
precludes the possibility of any of the numerous obstruc¬ 
tions which pass the strainer in any manner inter- 





HAND-BOOK OF MODERN STEAM FIRE ENGINES. 


59 


fering with the perfect work of the pump. The 
valves can be removed in five minutes should occasion re¬ 
quire, an advantage to be had only in this machine. 

A circulating or churn valve controlling a communication 
between the suction and discharge chambers of this pump 
is a useful feature, in that the engine may be kept in mo¬ 
tion to feed the boiler, should it be necessary to shut off 
the steam, or for a relief when small nozzles are used, the 
water passing around through this valve from one cham¬ 
ber of the pump to the other. 

All the packed joints are made with a dove-tailed form 
of groove, to which the packing is fitted, and if not other¬ 
wise disturbed the joints may be taken apart and replaced 
indefinitely without damage to the packing, which will 
remain in perfect order for years. 

The pumps and other portions of this fire-engine are 
made to gauge, with like parts interchangeable, so that 
one part of any pump can be applied for like use on 
another of similar size and style, and also can its other 
parts be duplicated and so used. 

The pump is of such construction that but two pieces 
are subjected to wear; these can be replaced when neces¬ 
sary at small cost and little trouble, when the pump will 
be as good for work as when new, no matter how long it 
may have been in use. 





60 HAND-BOOK OF MODEKN STEAM FIIIE-ENG1NES. 


WATER. 

Water is in many respects the most important substance 
known to man; it is more extensively diffused throughout 
nature than almost any other. It covers the greater part 
of the earth’s surface, and is found to pervade its interior 
wherever excavations are made. It enters into everv, or 
nearly every, combination of matter, and was supposed by 
some ancient philosophers to be the origin of all matter, the 
primordial element of which every object in nature was 
formed. In the early ages water was reverenced as the 
substance from which all things in the universe were sup¬ 
posed to be made, and the vivifying principle that anima¬ 
ted the whole; hence, rivers, fountains, and wells were 
worshipped, and religious feasts and ceremonies instituted 
in honor of them, or of the spirits which were believed to 
preside over them. 

Water being equally as necessary as solid food, man 

would early be impelled by his appetite to procure it in 
larger quantities than were required to allay his thirst upon 
a single occasion, and to devise some means by which he 
might convey it with him in his wanderings and to his 
family. It is not improbable that this was the first of 
man’s natural wants which required the exercise of his 
inventive faculties to supply ; as the human family multi¬ 
plied, its members necessarily kept extending more and 
more from their first abode, and in searching for suitable 
locations, the prospect of obtaining water would necessa¬ 
rily exert a controlling influence on their decisions. 

Water is the great mechanical power in nature. It is 
the great leveller — it moves mountains and fills valleys. 
All our stratified rocks, sandstones, slates, and limestones 
were formed by the action of water. To the solvent power 
of water and its chemical actions, we owe our useful min- 







HAND-BOOK OF MODERN STEAM FIRE-ENGINES. 61 


erals, our metallic deposits, ouI iron, zinc, copper, gold, 
and silver ores, and even coal. To its physical properties 
vve owe all the phenomena of' clouds, fog, dew, snow, and 
frost. It supports the plants, brings them their min¬ 
eral food from the soil, and protects them from excessive 
heat. 

Water is constantly visible under a variety of condi¬ 
tions. It is seen as ice; in its liquid form it is one of the 
commonest materials in the world; in the form of steam, 
it has of late years been most extensively applied in the 
industrial arts. But water is susceptible of a still further 
change. It is not a simple substance; it is composed of two 
others, oxygen and hydrogen ; and what seems especially 
remarkable, the components have themselves never been 
reduced to material form, either as liquids or as solids, 
though one of them (hydrogen) has been recently resolved 
into a metallic base ; but the facts obtained in this direction 
are not sufficiently plain to warrant any definite conclu¬ 
sion. 

The Composition of Water. — Pure water is composed 
of the two gases, hydrogen and oxygen, in the proportions 
of 2 measures of hydrogen to 1 of oxygen, or, 1 weight of 
hydrogen to 8 of oxygen; or, oxygen 89 parts by weight, 
and by measure 1 part, hydrogen, by weight, 11 parts, and 
by measure 2 parts. 

Pure water in nature does not exist, nor is it to be found 
in the laboratory of the chemist. Fortunately, however, 
it happens that pure water is not necessary, or even desir¬ 
able, for household or manufacturing purposes. The 
presence of air or other gases adds greatly to the ease with 
which steam may be generated; the ammonia that is 
present in most water improves it for manufacturing 
purposes; and it has been abundantly proved that the 
salts which are present in most well-waters add greatly 
6 








62 HAND-BOOK OF MODEKN STEAM FIRE-ENGINES. 

to their wholesomeness. But at the same time it must be 
remembered that some waters contain impurities which 
render them unlit for use. Of these various impurities, 
the insoluble portion is in general the least injurious, 
though it is frequently the most offensive. Water swarm¬ 
ing with minute animalcules, or turbid with the clay and 
sand that have been stirred up from the bed of some stream, 
may be offensive, though it is not dangerous; while, on the 
other hand, water may be beautifully clear to the eye and 
not very offensive to the taste, and yet hold in solution 
the most deadly poison, in the form of dissolved salts or 
the soluble portions of animal excreta. It also happens 
that these insoluble matters are easily and cheaply re¬ 
moved, while the utmost care is required to free water 
from matter which exists in a dissolved state. 

The specific gravity of all waters is not the same. The 
following table will show the specific gravity of the water 
of different seas : 


• 

Weight of 
water being 
1000. 

Weight of an 
imperial gal¬ 
lon in pounds. 

Water from the Dead Sea. 

1240 

12.4 

“ Mediterranean. 

1029 

10.3 

“ ' “ Irish Channel. 

1028 

10.2 

“ “ “ Baltic Sea. 

1015 

. 10.2 


For the production of steam, all waters are not equal. 
Water holding salt in solution, earth, sand or mud in sus¬ 
pension, requires a higher temperature to produce steam 
of the same elastic force than that generated from pure 
water. 

Water, like all other fluids and gases, expands with 
heat and contracts with cold down to 40° Fah. If water 










HAND-BOOK OF MODERN STEAM FIRE-ENGINES. 63 


be boiled in an open vessel, it is impossible to raise the 
temperature above 212° Fab., as all the surplus heat 
which may be applied passes off with the steam. If heat 
be applied to the top of a vessel, ebullition will not take 
place, as very little heat would be communicated to other 
parts of the vessel, and the water would not boil. Ebul¬ 
lition, or boiling of water or other liquids, is effected by 
the communication of heat through the separation of thqir 
particles. The evaporation of water is the conversion of 
water as a liquid into steam as a vapor. * 

Latent Heat of Water or Ice. — If a pound of ice at 
32° Fah. be mixed with a pound of water at 111°, the 
water will gradually dissolve the ice, being just sufficient 
for that purpose, and the residuum will be two pounds of 
water 32° Fall., showing that the 79 units of heat which 
were apparently lost had been employed in performing 
a certain amount of work, viz., in melting the ice or 
separating the molecules and giving them another shape; 
and as all work requires a supply of heat to do it, these 
79 units have been consumed in performing the work 
necessary to melt the ice. 

Latent Heat of Water. — If the pound of water were 
reconverted into ice, it would have to give up the 79 units 
of latent heat. Hence we see why it should be called 
the latent heat of water, and not the latent heat of ice. 
Suppose that we have a pound of ice at a temperature of 
32° Fall., and that we mix it with a pound of water at 
212°, the ice will be melted, and we shall have two pounds 
of water at a temperature of 51°. Now, if we take a pound 
of ice at a temperature of 32° and mix it with a pound of 
water at 212°, the resulting .mixture of the two pounds 
will have a temperature of 122°. Hence we see that the 
ice, in melting, has absorbed enough heat to raise two 
pounds of water through a temperature of 122°—51° 


64 HAND-BOOK OF MODERN STEAM FIRE-ENGINES. 

=71°, or one pound through 142°, and we say that the 
latent heat of the liquefaction of water is 142°. 

The latent heat of the evaporation of water can be de¬ 
termined in a similar manner by condensing a pound of 
steam at 212° Fah. with a given weight of water at a 
known temperature, and also by mixing a pound of water 
at a temperature of 212° Fah. with the same amount of 
water as was employed in the case of steam, and observ¬ 
ing the difference of temperature of the resulting mixtures. 
Thus, a pound of water at 212° mixed with ten pounds at 
60° gives eleven pounds at 74°. A pound of steam at 
212° mixed with ten pounds of water at 60° gives eleven 
pounds of water at 162°. In other words, the steam on 
being condensed has given out heat (which was not previ¬ 
ously sensible to the thermometer) enough to raise eleven 
pounds of water through a temperature of 162° less 74° 
equals 88°, or one pound through 968°, and we say that 
the latent heat of the evaporation of water is 968°. 

The boiling-point of water is that temperature at which 
the tension of its vapor balances exactly the pressure of 
the atmosphere. But the temperature at which the 
ebullition of water begins depends upon the elasticity of 
the air or other pressure. At the level of the sea, the 
barometer standing at 29.905 (or nearly 30) inches of 
mercury, water will boil at 212° Fall.; but the higher we 
ascend above the level of the sea, the more the boiling- 
point diminishes. Although it is claimed that water 
presses in every direction, and finds its level, yet it can 
be compressed yj]q of an inch in every 18 feet by each 
atmosphere or pressure of 15 pounds to the square inch 
of pressure applied; but when the pressure is removed, its 
elasticity restores it to its original bulk. 

Water attains its greatest density at 39° Fall., or 7° 
above freezing, and becomes solid and crystallized as ice 


HAND-BOOK OF MODERN STEAM FIRE-ENGINES. 65 


owing to the abstracting of its heat. The force of expan¬ 
sion exerted by water in the act of freezing has been found 
irresistible in all mechanical experiments to prevent it, 
as it expands its original bulk. Water boils in a 
vacuum at 98° Fah. 

Water attains a minimum volume and a maximum 
density at 40°Fah.; any departure from that temperature 
in either direction is accompanied by expansion, so that 
8° or 10° of cold produce about the same amount of ex¬ 
pansion as 8° or 10° of heat. At 70° Fall., pure water 
will boil at 1° less of temperature, for an average of about 
550 feet of elevation above sea-level, up to a height of one- 
half of a mile. At the height of 1 mile, 1° of boiling 
temperature will correspond to about 560 feet of elevation. 

The following table shows the approximate altitude 
above sea-level corresponding to different heights, or read¬ 
ings of the barometer ; and to the different degrees of Fah¬ 
renheit’s thermometer, at which water boils in the open 
air. 

TABLE 

SHOWING THE BOILING-POINT FOR FRESH WATER AT DIFFERENT 
ALTITUDES ABOVE SEA-LEVEL. 


Boiling- 
point in 
deg. Fah. 

Altitude 
above sea- 
level in feet. 

Boiling- 
point in 
deg. Fah. 

Altitude 
above sea- 
level in feet. 

Boiling- 
point in 
deg. Fah. 

Altitude 
above sea- 
level in feet. 

184° 

15221 

195° 

9031 

206° 

3115 

185° 

14649 

196° 

8481 

207° 

2589 

186° 

14075 

197° 

7932 

208° 

2063 

187° 

13498 

198° 

7381 

209° 

1539 

188° 

12934 

199° 

6843 

210° 

1025 

189° 

12367 

200° 

6304 

211° 

512 

190° 

11799 

201° 

5764 

212° 

sea- V 0 

191° 

11243 

202° 

5225 


level J 

192° 

10685 

203° 

4697 



193° 

10127 

204° 

4169 

Below sea-level. 

194° 

9579 

205° 

3642 

213° 

511 


6* E 




















66 HAND-BOOK OF MODERN STEAM FIRE-ENGINES, 


TABLE 


SHOWING THE WEIGHT OF WATER. 


1 

Cubic inch 

is equal to 

•03617 

pounds. 

12 

Cubic inches 

a 

•434 

U 

1 

Cubic foot 

it 

62-5 

U 

1 

Cubic foot 

Cl 

7-50 

U. S. gallons 

1*8 

Cubic foot 

Cl 

112-00 

pounds. 

35-84 

Cubic feet 

Cl 

2240-00 

u 

1 

Cylindrical inch 

u 

•02842 

it 

12 

Cylindrical inches 

tt 

•341 

it 

1 

Cylindrical foot 

Cl 

49-10 

a 

1 

Cylindrical foot 

Cl 

6-00 

U. S. gallons, 

2-282 

Cylindrical feet 

Cl 

112-00 

pounds. 

45-64 

Cylindrical feet 

it 

2240-00 

u 

11-2 

Imperial gallons 

Cl 

112-00 

it 

224-0 

Imperial gallons 

Cl 

2240-00 

tt 

13-44 

U. S. gallons 

u 

112-00 

it 

268-8 

U. S. gallons 

it 

2240-00 

tt 


TABLE 

SHOWING THE WEIGHT OF WATER AT DIFFERENT TEMPERATURES. 


Temperature 

Fahrenheit. 

Weight of a Cubic 
Foot in Pounds. 

Temperature 

Fahrenheit. 

Weight of a Cubic 
Foot in Pounds. 

40° 

62.408 

172° 

60.72 

42° 

62.406 

182° 

60.5 

52° 

62.377 

192° 

60.28 

62° 

62.321 

202° 

60.05 

72° 

62.25 

212° 

59.82 

82° 

62.15 

230° 

59.37 

92° 

62.04 

250° 

58.85 

102° 

61.92 

275° 

58.17 

112° 

61.78 

300° 

57.42 

122° 

61.63 

350° 

55.94 

132° 

61.47 

400° 

54.34 

142° 

61.30 

450° 

52.70 

152° 

61.11 

500° 

51.02 

162° 

60.92 

600° 

47.64 












HAND-BOOK OF MODERN STEAM FIRE-ENGINES. 67 


TABLE 

SHOWING THE WEIGHT OF WATER IN PIPE OF VARIOUS DIAM¬ 
ETERS 1 FOOT IN LENGTH. 


Diameter 
in Inches. 

Weight 
in Pounds. 

Diameter 
in Inches. 

Weight 
in Pounds. 

Diameter 
in Inches. 

Weight 
in Pounds. 

1 

1 





2 

H 





3 

3 

121 

51 

221 

1721 

31 

31 

121 

531 

23 

1801 

31 

41 

121 

551 

231 

1881 

3f 

41 

13 

571 

24 

1961 

4 

51 

131 

591 

241 

2041 

41 

61 

131 

621 

25 

213 

41 

7 

131 

641 

251 

2221 

4f 

71 

14 

661 

26 

2301 

5 

81 

141 

691 

261 

2391 

51 

91 

141 

7H 

27 

2481 

51 

101 

141 

741 

271 

2571 

5f 

HI 

15 

761 

28 

2671 

6 

121 

151 

791 

281 

276| 

61 

131 

151 

82 

29 

2861 

61 

141 

151 

841 

291 

2961 

6| 

151 

16 

871 

30 

306f 

7 

161 

161 

90 

301 

3171 

VI 

18 

161 

921 

31 

3271 

71 

19i 

161 

951 

31} 

3381 

7f 

201 

17 

981 

32 

349 

8 

211 

171 

1011 

321 

360 

81 

231 

171 

1041 

33 

3711 

81 

241 

171 

1071 

331 

3821 

8| 

26 

18 

110} 

34 

394 

9 

271 

181 

1131 

341 

405f 

91 

291 

181 

1161 

35 

4171 

91 

301 

181 

1191 

351 

4291 

91 

321 

19 

123 

36 

441 f 

10 

34 

191 

1261 

361 

454 

101 

351 

191 

1291 

37 

4661 

101 

371 

191 

132 

371 

4791 

10f 

391 

20 

1361 

38 

4921 

11 

411 

201 

1431 

381 

5051 

111 

441 

21 

1501 

39 

5181 

111 

45 

211 

1571 

39} 

531f 

111 

47 

22 

165 

40 

5451 

12 

49 








































68 HAND-BOOK OF MODERN STEAM FIRE-ENGINES. 


TABLE 

CONTAINING THE DIAMETERS, CIRCUMFERENCES, AND AREAS OF 
CIRCLES, AND THE CONTENTS OF EACH IN GALLONS, AT 1 FOCT 
IN DEPTH.—UTILITY OF THE TABLE. 


EXAMPLES. 

1. Required the circumference of a circle, the diameter 
being five inches? 

In the column opposite the given diameter stands 15.708* 
inches, the circumference required. 

2. Required the capacity in gallons of a can, the diam¬ 
eter being 6 feet and depth 10 feet ? 

In the fourth column from the given diameter stands 
211.4472,* being the contents of a can 6 feet in diameter 
and 1 foot in depth, which being multiplied by 10 gives 
the required contents, 21141 gallons. 

3. Any of the areas in feet multiplied by .03704, the 
product equals the number of cubic yards at 1 foot in 
depth. 

4. The area of a circle in inches multiplied by the 
length or thickness in inches, and by .263, the product 
equals the weight in pounds of cast-iron. 

* For decimal equivalents to the fractional parts of a gallon or an 
inch, see table on page 219. 


HAND-BOOK OP MODERN STEAM FIRE-ENGINES 


69 


TABLE 

OP DIAMETERS, CIRCUMFERENCES, AND AREAS OF CIRCLES, AND 
THE CONTENTS IN GALLONS AT 1 FOOT IN DEPTH. 


Diam. 

ClR. 

Area. 

Gallons. 

Diam. 

ClR. 

Area. 

Gallons. 

Inch. 

1 

Inch. 

3.1416 

Inch. 

.7854 

.04084 

Inch. 

i 

Inch. 

19.242 

Inch. 

29.464 

1.53213 

i 

3.5343 

.9940 

.05169 

i 

19.635 

30.679 

1.59531 

k 

3.9270 

1.2271 

.06380 

3 

8 

20.027 

31.919 

1.65979 

3 

¥ 

4.3197 

1.4848 

.07717 

1 

¥ 

20.420 

33.183 

1.72552 

b 

4.7124 

1.7671 

.09188 

5 

¥ 

20.813 

34.471 

1.79249 1 

I 

8 

5.1051 

2.0739 

.10784 

3 

4 

21.205 

35.784 

1.86077 

3 

4 

5.4978 

2.4052 

.12506 

7 

8 

21.598 

37.122 

1.93034 

7 

¥ 

5.8905 

2.7611 

.14357 

7 

21.991 

38.484 

2.00117 

2 

6.2832 

3.1416 

.16333 

i 

22.383 

39.871 

2.07329 

i 

6.6759 

3.5465 

.18439 

i 

22.776 

41.282 

2.14666 


7.0686 

3.9760 

.20675 

3 

8 

23.169 

42.718 

2.22134 

3 

8 

7.4613 

4.4302 

.23036 

* 

23.562 

44.178 

2.29726 

* 

7.8540 

4.9087 

.25522 

5 

23.954 

45.663 

2.37448 

5 

8.2467 

5.4119 

.28142 

4 

24.347 

47.173 

2.45299 

4 

8.6394 

5.9395 

.30883 

7 

¥ 

24.740 

48.707 

2.53276 

7 

¥ 

9.0321 

6.4918 

.33753 

8 

25.132 

50.265 

2.61378 

3 

9.4248 

7.0686 

.36754 

i 

25.515 

51.848 

2.69609 

i 

9.8175 

7.6699 

.39879 

i 

25.918 

53.456 

2.77971 

i 

10.210 

8.2957 

.43134 

3 

8 

26.310 

55.088 

2.86458 

1 

10.602 

8.9462 

.46519 

* 

26.703 

56.745 

2.95074 


10.995 

9.6211 

.50029 

5 

27.096 

58.426 

3.03815 

1 

11.388 

10.320 

.53664 

4 

7 

8 

27.489 

60.132 

3.12686 

3. 

4 

11.781 

11.044 

.57429 

27.881 

61.862 

3.21682 

7 

8 

12.173 

11.793 

.61324 

9 

28.274 

63.617 

3.30808 

4 

12.566 

12.566 

.65343 

i 

28.667 

65.396 

3.40059 

i 

12.959 

13.364 

.69493 

i 

4 

29.059 

67.200 

3.49440 

l 

13.351 

14.186 

.73767 

8 

29.452 

69.029 

3.58951 

3 

8 

13.744 

15.033 

.78172 

h 

29.845 

70.882 

3.68586 

I 

14.137 

15.904 

.82701 

30.237 

72.759 

3.78347 

5 

14.529 

16.800 

.87360 

4 

¥ 

30.630 

74.662 

3.88242 

4 

14.922 

17.720 

.92144 

31.023 

76.588 

3.98258 

1 ¥ 

15.315 

18.665 

.97058 

10 

31.416 

78.540 

4.08408 

5 

15.708 

19.635 

1.02102 


31.808 

80.515 

4.18678 


16.100 

20.629 

1.07271 

l 

32.201 

82.516 

4.29083 

\ 

16.493 

21.647 

1.12564 

3 

8 

32.594 

84.540 

4.39608 

3. 

g 

16.886 

22.690 

1.17988 

* 

32.986 

86.590 

4.50268 

i 

17.278 

23.758 

1.23542 

5 

33.379 

88.664 

4.61053 

5 

17.671 

24.850 

1.29220 

4 

33.772 

90.762 

4.71962 

| 

18.064 

25.967 

1.35028 

7 

¥ 

34.164 

92.885 

4.82846 

7 

¥ 

18.457 

27.108 

1.40962 

11 

34.557 

95.033 

4.94172 

6 

18.849 

28.274 

1.47025 

i 

34.950 

97.205 

5.05466 






























70 HAND-BOOK OF MODERN STEAM FIRE-ENGINES. 


TABLE — ( Continued ) 

OF DIAMETERS, CIRCUMFERENCES, AND AREAS OF CIRCLES, AND 
THE CONTENTS IN GALLONS AT 1 FOOT IN DEPTH. 


Diam 

ClR. 

Arka. 

Gallons. 

Diam. 

ClR. 

Area. 

Gallons. 

Inch. 

Inch. 

Inch. 


Inch. 

Inch. 

Inch. 



i 

35.343 

99.402 

5.16890 

3 

10 

12 

6J 

11.5409 

86.3074 


3 

8 

35.735 

101.623 

5.28439 

3 11 

12 

12.0481 

90.1004 


J 

36.128 

103.869 

5.40119 

4 


12 

6f 

12.5664 

93.9754 


| 

4 

36.521 

106.139 

5.51923 

4 

1 

12 

9f 

13.0952 

97.9310 


36.913 

108.434 

5.63857 

4 

2 

13 

1 

13.6353 

101.9701 

7 

7T • 

37.306 

110.753 

5.75916 

4 

3 

13 

4g 

14.1862 

103.0300 






4 

4 

13 

71 

14.7479 

110.2907 

Ft. 

In. 

Ft. In. 

Feet. 


4 

5 

13 lOf 

15.3206 

114.5735 

1 


3 If 

.7854 

5.8735 

4 

6 

14 

If 

15.9043 

118.9386 

1 

1 

3 4f 

.9217 

6.8928 

4 

7 

14 

4! 

16.4986 

123.3830 

1 

2 

3 8 

1.0690 

7.9944 

4 

8 

14 

7 7 

• 8 

17.1041 

127.9112 

! i 

3 

3 11 

1.2271 

9.1766 

4 

9 

1411 

17.7205 

132.5209 

i 

4 

4 2f 

1.3962 

10.4413 

4 

10 

15 

2} 

18.3476 

137.2105 

i 

5 

4 5f 

1.5761 

11.7866 

4 

11 

15 

51 

18.9858 

142.0582 

i 

6 

4 8* 

1.7671 

13.2150 

5 


15 

81 

19.6350 

146.8384 

; 1 

7 

4 Ilf 

1.9689 

14.7241 

5 

1 

1511f 

20.2947 

151.7718 

j 1 

8 

5 2f 

2.1816 

16.3148 

5 

2 

16 

2§ 

20.9656 

156.7891 

I 1 

9 

5 5| 

2.4052 

17.9870 

5 

3 

16 

6| 

21.6475 

161.8886 

1 l 

10 

5 9 

2.6398 

19.7414 

5 

4; 16 

9 

22.3400 

167.0674 

1 1 

11 

6 2f 

2.8852 

21.4830 

5 

5 17 

01 

23.0437 

172.3300 

! 2 


6 3f 

3.1416 

23.4940 

5 

6 

17 

3J 

of 

23.7583 

177.6740 

2 

1 

6 

3.4087 

25.4916 

5 

7 

17 

24.4835 

183.0973 

2 

2 

6 9f 

3.6869 

27.5720 

5 

8 

17 

9| 

25.2199 

188.6045 

2 

3 

7 Of 

3.9760 

29.7340 

5 

9 

18 

Of 

25.9672 

194.1930 

2 

4 

7 31 

4.2760 

32.6976 

5 

10 

18 

3f 

26.7251 

199.8610 

2 

5 

7 7 

4.5869 

34.3027 

5 

11 

18 

71 

27.4943 

205.6133 

.2 

6 

7 lOf 

4.9087 

36.7092 

6 


18 101 

28.2744 

211.4472 

2 

7 

8 If 

5.2413 

39.1964 

6 

3 

19 

71 

30.6796 

229.4342 

2 

8 

8 4| 

5.5850 

41.7668 

6 

6 

20 

4f 

33.1831 

248.1564 

2 

9 

8 7f 

5.9395 

44.4179 

6 

9 

21 

2f 

35.7847 

267.6122 

2 

10 

8 lOf 

6.3049 

47.1505 

7 


21 Ilf 

38.4846 

287.8032 

j 2 

11 

9 11 

6.6813 

49.9654 

7 

3 

22 

91 

41.2825 

308.7270 

3 


9 5 

7.0686 

52.8618 

7 

6 

23 

6f 

44.1787 

330.3859 

3 

1 

9 8\ 

7.4666 

55.8382 

7 

9 

24 

41 

47.1730 

352.7665 

3 

2 

9 Ilf 

7.8757 

58.8976 

8 


25 

H 

50.2656 

375.9062 

3 

3 

10 2£ 

8.2957 

62.0386 

8 

3 

2511 

53.4562 

399.7668 

3 

4 

10 5f 

8.7265 

65.2602 

8 

6 

26 

8f 

56.7451 

424.3625 

3 

5 

10 8f 

9.1683 

68.5193 

8 

9 

27 

5f 

60.1321 

449.2118 

3 

6 

10 111 

9.6211 

73.1504 

9 


28 

3f 

63.6174 

475.7563 

3 

7 

11 3 

10.0846 

75.4166 

9 

3 

29 

Of 

67.2007 

502.5536 

3 

8 

11 6£ 

10.5591 

78.9652 

9 

6 

29 101 

70.8823 

530.0861 

3 

9 

11 9| 

11.0446 

82.5959 

9 

9 

30 

71 

74.6620 

558.3522 


2 H 













































HAND-BOOK OF MODERN STEAM FIRE-ENGINES. 71 


TABLE — ( Concluded) 

OF DIAMETERS, CIRCUMFERENCES, AND AREAS OF CIRCLES, AND 
THE CONTENTS IN GALLONS AT 1 FOOT IN DEPTH. 


Diam. 

ClR. 

Area. 

Gallons. 

Diam. 

ClR. 

Area. 

Gallons. 

Ft. In. 

Ft. 

In. 

Feet. 


Ft. In. 

Ft. In. 

Feet. 


10 


31 

5 

78.5400 

587.3534 

20 

6 

64 

4t 

330.0643 

2468.3528 

10 

3 

32 

2 § 

82.5160 

617.0876 

20 

9 

65 

24 

338.1637 

2528.9233 

10 

6 

32 

Ilf 

86.5903 

647.5568 

21 


65114 

346.3614 

2590.2290 

10 

9 

33 

9* 

90.7627 

678.2797 

21 

3 

66 

9 

354.6571 

2652.2532 

11 


34 

6 | 

95.0334 

710.6977 

21 

6 

67 

62 

363.0511 

2715.0413 

11 

3 

35 

4| 

99.4021 

743.3686 

21 

9 

68 


371.5432 

2778.5486 

11 

6 

36 

If 

103.8691 

776.7746 

22 


69 

H 

380.1336 

2842.7910 

11 

9 

36 

101 

108.4342 

810.9143 

22 

3 

69 10f 

388.8220 

2907.7664 

12 


37 

8 | 

113.0976 

848.1890 

22 

6 

70 

84 

397.6087 

2973.4889 

12 

3 

38 

5f 

117.8590 

881.3966 

22 

9 

71 


406.4935 

3039.9209 

12 

6 

39 

31 

122.7187 

917.7395 

23 


72 

3 

415.4766 

3107.1001 

12 

9 

40 

01 

127.6765 

954.8159 

23 

3 

73 

Oi 

424.5577 

3175.0122 

13 


40 

10 

132.7326 

992.6274 

23 

6 

73 

91 

433.7371 

3243.6595 

13 

3 

41 

71 

137.8867 

1031.1719 

23 

9 

74 

74 

443.0146 

3313.0403 

13 

6 

42 

41 

143.1391 

1070.4514 

24 


75 

4f 

452.3904 

3383.1563 

13 

9 

43 

21 

148.4896 

1108.0645 

24 

3 

76 

24 

461.8642 3454.0051 

14 


43 

Ilf 

153.9384 

1151.2129 

24 

6 

76 Ilf 

471.4303 3525.5929 

14 

3 

44 

91 

159.4852 

1192.6940 

24 

9 

77 

9 

481.1065,3597.9068 

14 

6 

45 

61 

165.1303 

1234.9104 

25 


78 

64 

490.8750 

3670.9596 

14 

9 

46 

4 

170.8735 

1277.8615 

25 

3 

79 

31 

500.7415 

3744.7452 

15 


47 

n 

176.7150 

1321.5454 

25 

6 

80 

H 

510.7063 

3819.2657 

15 

3 

47 

101 

182.6545 

1365.9634 

25 

9 

80 lOf 

520.7692 

3894.5203 

15 

6 

48 

81 

188.6923 

1407.5165 

26 


81 

84 

530.93043970.5098 

15 

9 

49 

5| 

194.8282 

1457.0032 

26 

3 

82 

54 

541.1896l4047.2322 

16 


50 

31 

201.0624 

1503.6250 

26 

6 

83 

3 

551.5471 4124.6898 

16 

3 

51 

01 

207.3946 

1550.9797 

26 

9 

84 

01 

562.0027 4202.9610 

16 

6 

51 

10 

213.8251 

1599.0696 

27 


84 

91 

572.5566 

4281.8072 

16 

9 

52 

7| 

220.3537 

1647.8930 

27 

3 

85 

8r 

583.2085 

4361.4664 

17 


53 

41 

226.9806 

1697.4516 

27 

6 

86 

4| 

593.9587 

4441.8607 

17 

3 

54 

21 

233.7055 

1747.7431 

27 

9 

87 

2 | 

604.8070 

4522.9886 

17 

6 

54 

HI 

240.5287 

1798.7698 

28 


87 in 

615.7536 

4604.8517 

17 

9 

55 

9g 

247.4500 

1850.5301 

28 

3 

88 

9 

626.7982 

4686.4876 

18 


56 

61 

254.4696 

1903.0254 

28 

6 

89 

61 

637.9411 

4770.7787 

18 

3 

57 

4 

261.5872 

1956.2537 

28 

9 

90 

3t 

649.1821 

4854.8434 

18 

6 

58 

JL ft 

268.8031 

2010.2171 

29 


91 

H 

660.5214 

4939.6432 

18 

n9 

58 

10| 

276.1171 

2064.9140 

29 

3 

91 10| 

671.9587 

5025.1759 

19 


59 

81 

283.5294 

2120.3462 

29 

6 

92 

81 

683.4943 

5111.4487 

19 

3 

60 

5| 

31 

291.0397 

2176.5113 

29 

9 

93 

51 

695.1280 

5198.4451 

19 

6 

61 

298.6483 

2233.2914 

30 


94 

21 

706.8600 

5286.1818 

19 

9 

62 

01 

306.3550 

2291.0452 

30 

3 

95 

01 

718.6900 

5374.6512 

20 


62 

91 

314.1600 

2349.4141 

30 

6 

95 

9t 

730.6183 

5463.8558 

,20 

3 

63 

322.0630 

2408.5159 

30 

9 

96 

74 

742.6447 

5553.7940 











































THE MODERN SILSBY ROTARY CRANE-NECK STEAM FIRE-ENGINE. 




























































































































HAND-BOOK OF MODERN STEAM FIRE-ENGINES. 


73 


SILSBY ROTARY STEAM FIRE-ENGINE. 

The cut on the opposite page illustrates the Silsby 
Rotary Steam Fire-Engine. 

The boiler (see cut), is vertical and cylindrical; from 
the crown sheet depend water-tubes having in them con¬ 
centric circulation tubes, causing in each tube a strong 
central downward current of wafer, which, mostly con¬ 
verted into steam, ascends in a thin film in the annular 
space between the outer and inner tubes. These drop- 
tubes are arranged in concentric circles, those in the out¬ 
side rows being longer than the others, thus properly 
utilizing the space in the combustion chamber. The gases 
of combustion pass from the furnace through vertical 
smoke flues set concentrically, a conical smoke chamber 
connecting with the stack, and the draught is regulated 
by a variable exhaust nozzle. This nozzle has several 
outlets, making the blast steady and reliable. 

The water-tubes are screwed into the crown sheet, and 
the circulation tubes have at their lower ends triangular 
casements to prevent the lifting of the water by the rapid 
circulation. 

The steam made in the drop-tubes and elsewhere is 
dried and further heated by the smoke flues, and is then 
taken from a circular perforated dry pipe running around 
the steam space of the boiler. 

The water-tubes may be unscrewed and replaced in a 
few minutes, and all the smoke flues can be readily got at 
by removing the dome. This style of boiler possesses 
many advantages for steam fire-engine use. It has great 
steaming capacity combined with compactness and dura¬ 
bility, and that prerequisite quality, quick steaming. It 
is made of homogeneous “mild” steel. All joints are 
permanently tight. All heating surfaces, being straight, 
are easily cleaned, and all those exposed to the direct 






74 


HAND-BOOK OF MODERN STEAM FIRE-ENGINES. 


action of the fire are covered with water. It will burn 
coal or wood, will not prime and can use salt water. The 
circulation being so rapid there is no chance for the ac¬ 
cumulation of mud or scales. 

By a special arrangement by which a portion of the 
exhaust steam is utilized for heating to boiling point the 
water in the feed tank, this boiler is fed with hot instead 
of cold water, thus effecting a great saving of fuel, and 
relieving the boiler of the evil results from unequal con¬ 
traction and expansion with a cold feed. 



The engine (see cut), contains two rotating cams, both 
alike, each of which has eight short teeth and one long 
tooth, with one deep space between each two pairs of 
short teeth. The long teeth arc abutments for the steam, 
forming steam-tight joints with the walls of the case in 
which they rotate and with the deep spaces in which they 
engage. 

The tightness of the joints is insured by packing-pieces 
set out by springs, and controlled by suitable feathers. 

































IIAND-BOOK OF MODERN STEAM FIRE ENGINES. 


75 


The heads of the cams are turned to fit the case, and 
are provided with recesses for lubricants. 

The steam entering at the bottom of the case presses 
the abutments apart, and thus causes the cams to rotate 
in opposite directions. The journals revolve in a special 
patented form of bearing preventing overheating and 
any leakage of steam. 



The pump (see cut), is constructed upon the same gen¬ 
eral principle as the engine, only there are three long teeth 
to each cam and fewer short teeth. The water enters at 
the bottom of the case at the suction opening, and it i9 
discharged at the outlet on top. The revolution of the 
pump cams in opposite directions causes a vacuum in the 
case, the water then rushes up to fill it and is caught by 
the long teeth and swept out of the case. There are no 
valves in this pump. It is coupled directly on to the shaft of 
the engine, revolving simultaneously with it, and its rota¬ 
tion is further insured by well-cut gears upon the shafts 
outside of the steam and water cases. The journals of 
both engine and pump run in long bearings, and there 
are suitable stuffing boxes to insure steam and water-tight 



















76 


HAND-BOOK OF MODERN STEAM FIRE-ENGINES. 


joints for the shaft. The packing-pieces in the ends of 
the long teeth, on which is the only wear, can be removed 
through openings in the side of the case, there being no 
necessity for taking either the engine or pump apart. 
The stuffing-boxes reduce friction, insure absolute tight¬ 
ness, so that there is no leakage of either steam or water, 
and there is no necessity for frequent repacking. 

The rotary engine and pump undoubtedly embody the 
true principle for forcing water, and hence they are 
peculiarly adapted for steam fire-engine use. They are 
light, compact, and the parts are simple and few in num¬ 
ber. The action between the two being rotary and direct 
there is no jar to the machine incidental to the use of the 
crank, consequently there is no external wear on the hose. 
The absence of valves allows the use of any kind of water 
for fire purposes without danger of clogging the pump, 
insuring absolute reliability, a prerequisite in a fire-engine. 

The Silsby Engine combines all the essential points of 
a good machine,such as strength, durability and efficiency. 
They are built of the best materials, and fitted in a 
most thorough manner, all the parts being made to gauge 
and in duplicate. They are finished in the highest style, 
all the exposed metal parts being heavily nickel-plated. 
Each machine is furnished with a full complement of sup¬ 
plies. The modern Silsby steam fire-engine embraces all 
the improvements made in that class of machinery during 
the last thirty years, they having been built by the pres¬ 
ent manufacturers, The Silsby Manufacturing Co., of 
Seneca Falls, New York, since 1856. 

DISCHARGE OP WATER THROUGH APERTURES. 

In circular apertures in a thin plate on the bottom or 
side of a reservoir, the issuing stream tends to converge to 
a point distant about one-half its diameter from outside 


HAND-BOOK OF MODERN STEAM FIRE-ENGINES. 


77 


of the orifice, reducing the quantity nearly fths from the 
quantity due to the velocity corresponding to the height. 
When water issues from a short tube, the How is less con¬ 
tracted than in the former case, viz., in the ratio of 16 
to 13. 

With a conical aperture whose greater base is the aper¬ 
ture, the height of the frustum being half the diameter of 
the aperture, and the area of the small end to the area of 
the large end as 10 to 16, there will be no contraction of 
the vein. Hence this form gives the greatest flow. 

The quantity of water flowing from a vertical, rectangu¬ 
lar aperture reaching to the surface, is two-thirds of the 
quantity that would flow out of the same aperture placed 
horizontally at the depth of the base. 

The quantity of water discharged during the same time 
by the same orifices under different heads, are nearly as 
the square roots of the corresponding heights of the water 
in the reservoir above the surface of the orifices. 

Small orifices, on account of friction, discharge propor¬ 
tionally less fluid than those which are larger and of the 
same figure, under the same pressure. 

Circular apertures are the most efficacious, having less 
rubbing surface under the same area. 

If the cylindrical, horizontal tube through which water 
is discharged, be of greater length than the diameter, the 
discharge is much increased ; it can be increased to advan¬ 
tage to four times the diameter of the orifice. 

To find the velocity of .the flow of water through 
canals, etc. Multiply the head or fall in feet by the 
area of the cross-section of the stream in square feet, and 
divide the product by the length of the channel in feet; 
the square root of the quotient multiplied by 774.6, equals 
the velocity in feet per minute. 


SHOWING THE THEORETICAL DISCHARGE OF WATER BY ROUND APERTURES OF VARIOUS DIAMETERS, AND UNDER 

DIFFERENT HEADS OF WATER PRESSURE. 


78 HAND-BOOK OF MODERN STEAM FIRE-ENGINES. 


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SHOWING THE ACTUAL DISCHARGE BY SHORT TUBES OF VARIOUS DIAMETERS, WITH SQUARE EDGES AND UNDER 
DIFFERENT HEADS OF WATER PRESSURE, BEING T * TIIS OF THE THEORETICAL DISCHARGE. 


, 

HAND-BOOK OF MODERN STEAM FIRE-ENGINES. 79 



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TAB Ij E 

SHOWING THE DISCHARGE OF JETS WITH DIFFERENT HEADS. 


80 HAND-BOOK OF MODERN STEAM FIRE-ENGINES. 


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TABLE 

SHOWING THE NUMBER OF GALLONS OF WATER DISCHARGED THROUGH DIFFERENT SIZE APERTURES, AND 

WITH DIFFERENT HEADS, IN ONE MINUTE AND IN TWENTY-FOUR HOURS. 


HAND-BOOK OF MODERN STEAM FIRE-ENGINES. 81 



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82 HAND-BOOK OF MODERN STEAM FIRE-ENGINES 




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HAND-BOOK OF MODERN STEAM FIRE-ENGINES. 


83 


RULES. 

Rule for finding the Time a Cistern will take in filling, 
when a known Quantity of Water is going in and a known 
Quantity is going out, in a given time. — Divide the con¬ 
tents of* the cistern, in gallons, by the difference of the 
quantity going in and the quantity going out, and the 
quotient is the time in hours and parts that the cistern 
will take in filling. 

Rule for finding the Time a Vessel will take in Emptying 
itself of Water. — Multiply the square root of the depth in 
feet by the area of the falling surface in inches; divide 
the product by the area of the orifice, multiply by 3.7, 
and the quotient is the time required in seconds, nearly. 

Rul Q for finding the Quantity of Water discharged through 
an Orifice per Minute. — Multiply the area of the orifice 
in square feet by the square root of the height of the level 
of the water above the orifice in feet, and the product 
multiplied by 297.6 will be equal to the discharge in 
cubic feet, nearly. 

Rule for finding the Quantity of Water a Steam-boiler or 
any Cylindrical Vessel will contain. — Multiply the area of 
the head or base in inches by the length in inches, and 
divide the product by 1728; the quotient will be the 
number of cubic feet of water the boiler or vessel will 
contain. If the boiler contains flues or tubes, their com¬ 
bined area in inches by their length in inches must be 
deducted from the above product. 

Rule for finding the Requisite Quantity of Water for a 
Steam-boiler. —When the number of pounds of coal con¬ 
sumed per hour can be ascertained, divide it by 7.5, and 
the quotient will be the required quantity of water in 
cubic feet per hour. 

Rule for finding the Required Height of a Column of 






84 HAND-BOOK OF MODERN STEAM FIRE-ENGINES. 

Water to supply a Steam-boiler against any given Pressure 
of Steam. — Multiply the boiler pressure in pounds per 
square inch by 2.5; the product will be the required 
height in feet above the surface of the water in the boiler. 

Rule/or finding the Diameter of a Pipe sufficient to Dis¬ 
charge a given Quantity of Water per Minute in Cubic 
Feet —Multiply the square of the quantity in cubic feet 
per minute by .96, and the product equals the diameter 
of the pipe in inches. 

Rule for finding the Number of U. S. Gallons contained 
in a Foot of Pipe of any given Diameter. — Square the 
diameter of the pipe in inches, multiply the square by 
.0408; the product is U. S. gallons. 

Rule for finding the Power required to raise Water to 
any Height. — Multiply the perpendicular height of the 
water, in feet, by the velocity also in feet, and by the 
square of the pump’s diameter in inches, and again by 
.841; divide this product by 33,000, and one-fifth of the 
quotient added to the whole quotient will be the number 
of horse-power required. 

Rule for finding the Pressure in Pounds per Square Inch 
exerted by a Column of Water. — Multiply the height of 
the column in feet by 0.434, and the product will be the 
pressure in pounds per square inch. 

Rule for finding the Head of Water in Feet , Pressure being 
known. — Multiply the pressure per square inch by 2.314. 
The pressure per square foot equals the height of the 
column in feet multiplied by 62.4. 


HAND-BOOK OF MODERN STEAM FIRE-ENGINES. 


85 


Water is the grand agent tl.at nature has provided for 
the extinguishment of fires, and contrivances for applying 
it with effect have, in every civilized country, been assidu¬ 
ously sought for. In the absence of more suitable imple¬ 
ments, buckets, and other portable vessels of capacity at 
hand, have always been seized to convey and throw water 
on fires; and when used with celerity and presence of 
mind, at the commencement of one, have often been suffi¬ 
cient ; but when a conflagration extends beyond their 
reach, the fate of the burning building is sealed, unless 
some more efficient means of extinguishing the fire is at 
hand. Consequently, the necessity of some device by 
which a stream of water could be forced from a distance on 
flames, must have been early perceived; and if we were to 
judge from the frequency and extent of ancient conflagra¬ 
tions, the prodigious amount of property destroyed, and 
of human misery superinduced by them, we should con¬ 
clude that ingenious men of former times were stimulated 
in an unusual degree to invent machines for the purpose. 

That this was the case, cannot well be questioned, 
although no account of their labors has reached our times; 
yet it seems more than probable that the celebrated cities 
of remote antiquity had their fire-engines, as it is not at 
all likely that the mechanics of such cities as Nineveh and 
Babylon would have left their splendid edifices destitute 
of the means of protection from the ravages of the fire- 
fiend. But fire-engines were nearly or altogether forgotten 
in the middle ages, portable syringes being the only con¬ 
trivances— except buckets — for throwing water on fires; 
and from their inefficiency, and other causes, their em¬ 
ployment was very limited. The general ignorance which 
then pervaded Europe not only prevented the establish¬ 
ment of manufactories for better instruments, but the su¬ 
perstitions of the times actually discouraged their use. 


86 HAND-BOOK OF MODERN STEAM FIRE-ENGINES. 

But when the useful arts began to excite attention, the 
defects of portable syringes were too apparent to be neg¬ 
lected. Hence, in the early part of the sixteenth cen¬ 
tury, several attempts were made to remedy them by those 
noble spirits who burst through the prejudice that had so 
long consigned the subjects of practical mechanics to the 
mere makers of machines, as one unworthy of a philoso¬ 
pher’s pursuit, and from the cultivation of which no dis¬ 
tinction, save such as was allied to that of an artisan, 
could be derived. The important results of their labors 
to mankind, however, gave a dignity to skilful mechanics, 
notwithstanding the degraded state in which operatives 
had been held in those times bv those who had lived on 
their ingenuity, and become enriched by their skill. • 

For a long time there was no definite size of fire-engines, 
and in fact no regular system, either as to their manufac¬ 
ture or use. At length, however, two of the most import¬ 
ant improvements ever made in the fire-engine were intro¬ 
duced about the same time, namely, the air-chamber and 
flexible hose, which add immensely to the efficiency of the 
modern fire-engine. By the former, the stream ejected 
from a single pump was rendered continuous; and by the 
latter, it was no longer necessary to take the engine itself 
close to a building on fire. The manual fire-engines have 
received but little attention for several years past, and 
have undergone but very slight improvements; and, as 
they are destined to be entirely superseded by the steam 
fire-engine, it is unnecessary to devote much space here to 

an explanation of their mechanism or working principles. 

8 


HAND-BOOK OF MODERN STEAM FIRE-ENGINES. 


87 



HODGE’S STEAM FIRE-ENGINE-1840. 











































































































































88 HAND-BOOK OF MODERN STEAM FIRE-ENGINES. 

STEAM FIRE-ENGINES. 

The first steam fire-engine built in this country was 
constructed in 1840, by P. R. Hodge, an ingenious mechan¬ 
ical engineer of New York, a cut of which may be seen 
on page 86. The engines were horizontal, and had their 
cylinders attached to the smoke-box of a tubular-boiler 
of the locomotive type, with steam-dome. The pistons 
of the steam- and water-cylinders were on the same rods; 
and the connecting-rods were attached to cranks on the 
hind wheels, which served as balance-wheels when the 
engine was blocked up for service. The pumps had re¬ 
ceiving-screws on the sides, and delivery-screws on the 
ends. The engine was self-propelling, and very efficient; 
but such was the prejudice of the volunteer fire depart¬ 
ment against the introduction of such a means of ex¬ 
tinguishing fires, that it was allowed to fall into disuse, 
and it required twelve years to fully convince property 
owners, underwriters, and insurance companies that it 
was necessary to provide some more efficient means of 
extinguishing fires than the manual engines. The weight 
of this celebrated engine was about 3000 pounds. 

The next successful steam fire-engine in this country— 
in fact, in the world — was the “ Joe Ross,” built in 1852, 
by A. B. Latta, for the city of Cincinnati; and, although 
on trial it proved to be superior to any other known 
device for extinguishing fires, there was a great deal of 
prejudice and opposition offered to its employment for 
that purpose. 

Since then the growth and improvement of the steam 
fire-engine has been steady and progressive, and at the 
present time the manufacture of these engines is among 
the most important and prosperous mechanical industries 
of the country. The number of steam fire-engines in use 


HAND-BOOK OF MODERN STEAM FIRE-ENGINES 


89 



THE AMOSKEAG IMPROVED STEAM FIRE-ENGINE 






































































90 


HAND-BOOK OF MODERN STEAM FIRE-ENGINES. 


in the United States at the close of 18/5 was 1400. 
Some of the finest mechanical talent in the country has 
for several years past been devoted to the improvement 
of the steam fire-engine, and as a result, the American 
Steam Fire-Engine, in symmetry of parts, elegance of 
finish, and efficiency of action, stands unrivalled by any 
other in the world. The writer, to satisfy himself on 
this subject, made an examination of a great variety 
of steam fire-engines, both of this country and Europe, 
and he found many of the European fire-engines very 
defective in design, complicated in parts, and inefficient 
in action; while, on the other hand, the American en¬ 
gines in general were found simple in design, perfect in 
proportion, elegant in finish, and efficient in action. They 
were, also, as a general thing, in better order and more 
efficiently managed. 

NAMES OF THE PRINCIPAL MANUFACTURERS OF 
MODERN FIRE-ENGINES. 

Silsby Mfg. Co., Seneca Falls, N. Y. 

Ahrens Mfg. Co., Cincinnati, Ohio. 

Clapp & Jones, Hudson, N. Y. 

Manchester Loco. Co., Manchester, N. H. 

Button Fire-Engine Co., Waterford, N. Y. 

W. II. Lang, Goodhue & Co., Burlington, Yt. 

The La France Fire-Engine Co., Elmira, N. Y. 
Holloway t Chemical Fire-Engine, Baltimore, Md. 

AMOSKEAG- STEAM EIRE-ENGINE. 

The engraving illustrates the modern Amoskeag 
Steam Fire-Engine, manufactured by the Manchester 
Locomotive Works, Manchester, N. H. These engines 
are vertical, with steam cylinder and pumps attached 
to an upright tubular boiler, with submerged smoke- 
box. The pumps are double-acting, with receiving- 


HAND-BOOK OF MODERN STEAM FIRE-ENGINES. 


91 


screws on each side, and are surrounded by a circular 
chamber, which forms the suction and discharge openings. 
The pumps have separate valve-plates at the top and 
bottom, which form the seats of the suction and discharge 
valves ; each of these plates can easily be reached by re¬ 
moving the top or bottom of the pump, which makes it 
very convenient for cleaning or repairs when it becomes 
necessary. The discharge and suction chambers of these 
pumps are connected by a relief-valve. 

The Amoskeag engines are built either single or double, 
self-propelling or to be drawn by horses,with either straight 
or crane-neck frames. There is very little difference in the 
general appearance or weight between the self-propel¬ 
ling engines and those intended to be drawn by horses. 
They are mounted upon patent platform springs in such 
a manner that the springs bear the weight, but sustain no 
part of the draft strain. The propelling is done by the 
same engines that are used for the pumps, and being re¬ 
versible, they can be propelled either backwards or for¬ 
wards as desired. The propelling is effected by an 
endless chain wmrking over sprocket-wheels on the driv¬ 
ing-shafts and rear-axles. The propelling gear is very 
simple in its construction, and so arranged as not to 
interfere in the least with the use of the ordinary draw¬ 
ing rig for either men or horses, should it under any 
circumstances become necessary to use them. The steering 
apparatus is also so arranged as to require very little exer¬ 
tion on the part of the driver to keep the machine in line, 
or to change the inclination of the wheels even when travel¬ 
ing at a high speed. They can be turned with great ease, 
and within very narrow limits, by means of a set of com¬ 
pound gearing so arranged on the axle that in turning the 
engine the two rear wheels are driven at varying speeds. 

The Amoskeag engines embody some very fine mechan¬ 
ical conceptions in their design and construction ; they are 


92 HAND-BOOK OF MODERN STEAM FIRE-ENGINES. 

probably the most powerful and efficient engines in the 
country, and are perhaps in more general use than any 
other. They are made of the best material, and all the 
parts most likely to wear or suffer by accident are made to 
standard gauges, and duplicated; consequently, they can be 
renewed at short notice. The boilers and steam-cylinders 
are covered with either ornamental wood or Russian iron, 
and banded with brass, nickel plate, or German silver. 
Each engine is furnished with the following supplies: 
20 feet of suction hose, a suitable brass strainer for suction 
hose, a brass hydrant connection for suction hose, a brass 
signal-whistle, two plated gauges — one steam and one 
water; two discharge pipes for leading hose, with a com¬ 
plete set of changeable nozzles from i inch diameter to If, 
two brass-bound firemen’s hand lanterns, a large brass 
oil can, a jack-screw for convenience in oiling the axles, 
a coal shovel and fire poker; a tool box containing all the 
tools necessary to be used in the running or adjustment of 
the engine and pumps. 

EARLY FORMS OF STEAM FIRE-ENGINES. 

In the early days of the steam fire-engine, brass, copper, 
and wrought iron were the materials most generally em¬ 
ployed in their construction, the quantity of either used 
varying according to the fancy of the builder; but steel 
now seems to possess extra advantages for the construction 
of different parts of such machines, as, by its use, they can 
be made sufficiently strong with very moderate weight 
and bulk, which is a consideration of great importance. 
Metallic valves were also at one time in almost universal 
use, but they are being very rapidly replaced by flexible 
materials. Many of the engines now in use in this country 
have conical India-rubber disk-valves, held in position by 


HAND-ROOK OF MODERN STEAM FIRE-ENGINES. 


93 


spiral springs, which answer a very good purpose, as they 
give sufficient area of opening with very limited lift. 
Crane-neck frames are also fast taking the place of the 
straight or parallel, as they admit of the boiler and 
machinery being placed lower down on the frame, and 
afford great facilities for turning round in narrow streets 
or contracted situations. 

The blower-pipe, that was at one time so extensively 
used in the smoke-stacks of fire-engines for the purpose of 
increasing the draught, is now nearly, if not entirely, super¬ 
seded by the variable-exhaust, and nearly, if not all, fire- 
engine houses have stationary steam-boilers, generally 
located in the cellar, on which steam is kept up steadily 
for the purpose of keeping the water in the boiler of the 
steam fire-engine hot; this arrangement obviates the 
necessity of burning gas-jets in the furnace, as was 
generally the custom some years ago. Nearly any of the 
present class of improved steam fire-engines can raise 
steam in from 10 to 12 minutes while running to a fire. 

The pumps of steam fire-engines, both of this country 
and Europe, are of different kinds, each one of which is 
claimed to possess some advantages over the others; but 
with them, as with all kinds of machines, it will be found 
that the simplest are generally the most durable and 
efficient. Their cylinders have also been placed in differ¬ 
ent positions, vertical, horizontal, incline, etc.; but the verti¬ 
cal seems to be superseding all others at the present time, as 
fire-engines with their cylinders in this position are enabled 
to use vertical pumps, and can be attached directly to the 
boiler, which makes the working of the engine more 
steady in consequence of the weight being against the lift; 
moreover, they are as a general thing more compact and 
strong than the horizontal engines, and avoid the loss 
incurred by carrying steam from the boiler to the cylinder 


94 


HAND-BOOK OF MODERN STEAM FIRE-ENGINES. 


through pipes exposed to the atmosphere. The wear on 
the rubbiug surfaces of vertical engines is also less than 
horizontal or inclined engines suffer. 

The water-pistons of steam fire-engines, like those of 
steam-pumps, are almost exclusively made of leather, as 
that material possesses superior advantages over any other 
for that purpose; they are either made solid or in the 
shape of a disk. To make the disk-packing, the best des¬ 
cription of leather is taken, and cut in circles about two 
inches larger in diameter than the pump-cylinder, after 
which they are soaked in lukewarm water for several 
hours; they are then placed on a rod, and screwed up 
between two flanges, and by means of a nut and screw 
drawn into a cylinder of about the same diameter as that 
of the pump, and allowed to dry ; after which they can be 
removed and hung up for future use. 

In some instances, the piston-packing is formed by 
placing several flanges of leather oil the piston-rod, and 
screwing them up, after which the rod is placed in a 
lathe, and the flanges turned to suit the diameter of the 
pump-cylinder. This method of packing, though very 
good, is not so tight as the disk, as the pressure adjusts 
the latter to the form of the cylinder. When making 
a solid leather piston, it is not necessary to soak the 
leather. 

The difficulty which so materially interfered with the 
usefulness of the steam fire-engine for many years after 
its introduction, that of being manufactured at a great 
distance from the locations at which they were intended 
to be used, and having, in case of accident, repairs, or 
alterations, to be transported to the place where they were 
originally built, is now successfully overcome by the 
establishment of machine-shops in connection with nearly 
all the fire departments in this country. 



HAND-BOOK OF MODERN STEAM FIRE-ENGINES. 


95 


The application of the relief-valve for the purpose of 
regulating the pressure in the air-vessel, and preventing 
the discharge-hose from bursting, like the air-vessel, the 
flexible-hose, and the reducing-screw, by which to connect 
the suction-hose with the ordinary fire-plug, added very 
much to the efficiency and economy of the steam fire-engine. 

Many of the steam fire-engines that were in general 
use a few years ago, have gradually disappeared. This 
resulted from the fact, that in all large cities under the 
volunteer system, there were more steam fire-engines than 
were required. Under the Paid Fire Department system 
all the worn out, complicated, or inefficient engines were 
allowed to fall into disuse, or were sold to country towns, 
and none retained but those that had a good reputation 
for efficiency, durability, and economy. 

The most essential requisites of the steam fire-engine 
are : simplicity of design, fewness of parts, strength, dura¬ 
bility, lightness, and efficiency. These are all very impor¬ 
tant points, and should be carefully attended to, as the 
neglect of any one of them may, in a measure, defeat the 
object to be attained in the use of the machine. 

On the design of an engine, whether fire, stationary, 
locomotive, or marine, rests its success, as a badly made 
engine can be rebuilt, but an inferior design will render 
every attempt to increase its efficiency a failure. The 
strains induced by the movement of engines of all classes 
may be called the base upon which their designs should 
be decided. Movements determine the general dimen¬ 
sions, and strains should decide the proportions of different 
parts ; movements and strains together must, therefore, be 
considered in deciding the proper area of service exposed 
to wear. Therefore, in designing any machine, symmetry 
should be observed, in order that all the working points 
may be accessible without derangement, and at the same 


96 HAND-BOOK OF MODERN STEAM FIRE-ENGINES. 

time, the strain or wear on each part in directing the 
movements of the machine must be duly considered. 

It is desirable that the parts of a fire-engine should be 

as few as possible, and be readily accessible for adjust¬ 
ment or repairs, as it must be borne in mind, that the 
fewer the parts in any machine, and the simpler the con¬ 
struction, the more satisfactory will be the results. 

Complicated machines, however well constructed, are 
always difficult and expensive to repair, as a great loss of 
time is frequently incurred in handling, repairing, or re¬ 
adjusting such a multiplicity of parts. They also require 
more intelligent, and consequently more expensive, attend¬ 
ants, when, if simple in design and properly constructed, 
they can be managed by persons having only a slight 
knowledge of machinery, which is a feature of great im¬ 
portance, particularly in places where there happens to be 
a scarcity of skilled engineers or machinists. The true 
secret of success in the employment of any class of machines 
is, to construct them on a principle that will insure the 
greatest possible amount of work with the least expendi- 
tu re. 

Strength is a very important feature in a steam fire- 
engine, but it should be attained rather by the quality and 
disposition made of the metal employed than by weight, 
as all the material used over and above that which would 
give sufficient strength, if well proportioned, not only acts 
as a dead weight, but detracts very much from the ad¬ 
vantages of the machine. Steel and the higher grades of 
wrought iron, particularly the former, possess very high 
qualities for the construction of different parts of the steam 
fire-engine, as, when well proportioned for the position it is 
to occupy, the parts may be made light, and at the same 
time possess great strength, advantages which show them¬ 
selves whenever an engine is subjected to severe treatment. 


HAND-BOOK OF MODERN STEAM FIRE-ENGINES. 


97 


From the very nature of the work that a steam fire- 
engine has to perform, it is very desirable that it should 
possess the quality of durability in a very eminent degree, 
as it would be somewhat difficult to decide whether the 
strains to which it is subjected when in action, or the 
jarring it receives in going to or coming from fires, is the 
more detrimental to its durability. Consequently, in the 
proportioning of the different parts of the machine, these 
two contingencies should be amply provided for; all the 
bearings for the revolving or vibrating parts should be of 
sufficient dimensions to prevent the possibility of rapid 
wear, the rubbing surfaces of ample area, the piston and 
valve-rods should be made of steel, and the pump-cylinders 
of metal composed of nine parts of brass to one of tin, but 
no zinc. The springs should be sufficiently strong to pre¬ 
vent the possibility of breaking, and at the same time 
possess the required elasticity to relieve the machine from 
the excessive jarring to which it is exposed when travel¬ 
ling over rough surfaces. 

Lightness, as far as is consistent with strength and safety, 
is also very desirable in the steam fire-engine; but as the 
circumstances under which they are used are so varying, 
no rule can be given that would apply to the proportioning 
of all the different parts; consequently, experience and 
judgment have to be the guides in such cases, and the 
different parts have to be designed with a view to dura¬ 
bility and to safety rather than to show and extreme 
lightness. One of the best aids for the attainment of 
lightness in all machines is the use of a superior quality 
of metal in their construction. 

Efficiency of Steam Fire-Engines. — To determine the 
relative efficiency of steam fire-engines, viewing them sim¬ 
ply as hydraulic machines, it is necessary to note, 1st, the 
extreme vertical height and horizontal distance to which 



98 HAND-BOOK OF MODERN STEAM FIRE-ENGINES. * 

% 

the water can be thrown; 2d, the volume or quantity 
delivered in a certain time to that height and distance; 
3d, the total power given out by the engine and con¬ 
sumed in performing that work in the unit of time. In 
short, the engine that possesses the power of raising steam 
most rapidly, maintaining it steadily; which is simple, 
durable, strong and light, and which is able to throw 
water with the greatest force and energy, the earliest 
after arriving at a fire, is the most efficient engine. 

The distance and height to which a jet of water can be 
thrown by a steam fire-engine are influenced by many 
conditions: the diameter of the jet, the diameter of the 
hose, the smoothness of its interior, the mode of coupling, 
the position of the hose on the ground, the freedom from 
sharp bends, etc. All these alfect the range most seriously ; 
but the greatest drawback is that of the atmosphere, which 
increases as the square of the velocity. For this reason, 
an engine at high pressure does not give results proportion¬ 
ate to those attained through the same nozzle at a much 
low T er pressure. The power of an engine may be dimin¬ 
ished in other ways,—such as by drawing the water from a 
source far below the pump; by forcing it into the air- 
vessel in cases where the latter leaks; by hose badly con¬ 
structed, and with couplings contracting the w T ater-ways, 
instead of which, they ought to be of the same size as the 
internal diameter of the hose. These are some of the 
causes of diminishing the power that would otherwise be 
expended in projecting the column of water to its full 
height or length. 

There are other sources of loss in the pumps of steam 
fire-engines, such as the contraction of the fluid-vein 
entering the suction-pipe, and in its passage through the 
pump to the hose. The meeting of two separate currents 
by the delivery of two alternate streams into a common 
9 G 


HAND-BOOK OF MODERN STEAM FIRE-ENGINES. 


99 


passage; the friction in the tubes and passages; the small 
and peculiar construction of the valves in some cases; the 
disproportion in the sectional area of the barrel and that of 
the suction- and force-pipes, constitute three other sources 
of loss. The form of the suction-pipe at which the water 
enters, and of the force-pipe at the end where the water 
is discharged ; the form of both of these pipes where they % 
unite with the barrel; the proportional length of the barrel 
to the depth from which the water is raised, may also be 
added to the list of sources of loss. All these combined, 
consume the power that would otherwise be exerted in 
raising and discharging the column of water, so that in 
many instances not more than 50 per cent, of the work due 
to the power of the engine is utilized in the pump. 

Experiments both in this country and Europe have 
shown that, as a general thing, fire-engines, when at work 
under the most favorable circumstances, do not perform 
more than from one-half to two-thirds the theoretic duty 
due to the pressure in the pump-cylinder; and the higher 
the pressure at which such engines are worked, the more 
apparent this discrepancy becomes, and instead of obtain¬ 
ing, with a pressure of 120 lbs on the square inch, a vertical 
height of 270', which is about the theoretic height due to 
that pressure, it will be found that it does not exceed 140', 
unless everything is under the most favorable conditions. 
Again, to double the distance or height within certain 
limits, the pressure requires to be three times as great. 
The loss of power induced by forcing water through long 
lengths of leather hose has been variously estimated ; and 
experiments have shown that pumping engines with a long 
stroke, and making but very few in a given time, and allow¬ 
ing a short pause at the end of each stroke for the water to 
fill the passages, and insure a solid body of water for the 
power to work against, gave the most satisfactory results. 



100 HAND-BOOK OF MODERN STEAM FIRE-ENGINES. 

The wear and tear of the working parts are also greatly 
diminished by such an arrangement. 

Steam fire-engines may be divided into two classes — 
slow- and fast-running engines; and both of these classes 
have their respective advocates; but it has been found in 
practice that short-stroke engines are to be preferred in all 
,respects, as the engine making the greatest number of 
strokes does, as a general thing, the greatest amount of 
duty. But it must be remembered that the wear on fast- 
running engines is greater than on those that run slowly, 
as the moving parts have to change their direction more 
frequently. They are also more liable to break down. 
Nevertheless, steam fire-engines should be so designed as 
to be capable of working at either slow or fast speed, and 
to discharge an amount of water proportionate to the speed 
at which they are worked. 

FLOATING STEAM FIRE-ENGINES. 

The use of floating steam fire-engines seems to be re¬ 
ceiving encouragement in all large commercial cities, where 
property of immense value is often collected on the banks 
of rivers or wharves, and where, in consequence of an un¬ 
limited supply of water, such engines are capable of ren¬ 
dering most efficient service. The great extent of water¬ 
front, and the long line of shipping which bound nearly all 
the great commercial cities of this country, and the dangers 
to which they are exposed from fire, render the intro¬ 
duction and successful employment of floating steam fire- 
engines an object of great importance. The floating steam 
fire-engine in New York harbor is said to have rendered 
very efficient service. The pumps are 11 X 12, and were 
built by the Manchester Locomotive Company. 


HAND-BOOK OF MODERN STEAM FIRE-ENGINES. 


101 


THE BUTTON STEAM FIRE-ENGINE. 


The cut represents the Button Steam Fire-Engine, 

the boilers of which are a modification of the upright 
tubular, in which is introduced a very efficient circulating 
device. They are the only upright tubular boilers which 
can properly be called circulating boilers. The flues are 
of copper and are secured in heavy tube sheets at each 
end, and protected from injury by the outside shell of the 
boiler. They are always covered with water at whatever 
inclination the engine can be worked. 



The advantages claimed for these boilers are that the 
flues being of copper never corrode, that they are better 
conductors of heat than iron, that owing to the arrange¬ 
ment of the materials they are not strained or made to leak 
by the expansion or contraction induced by varying tem¬ 
peratures, that they are easily kept clean and otherwise 
cared for, and that the circulation of the water over the 
heated surfaces is complete and rapid. 

These engines are built with crane-neck running gear 
without reach and can be turned around in a space as 
wide as they are long. 

The pumps are double and what is known as 
“duplex.” They have neither cranks, balance wheels, 
connecting rods nor eccentrics. There are no revolving 
parts, but the piston of one engine controls the valve of 
the other reciprocally. They are capable of being run 
9 * 






102 HAND-BOOK OF MODERN STEAM FIRE-ENGINES. 

\ 

at very high velocities without jar or concussion, and will 
throw a quantity of water proportionate to their speed, 
working steadily and quietly whether running one hundred 
strokes a minute or six hundred. The pumps are of the 
best bronze metal and are so arranged that the water can¬ 
not come in contact with the iron, thus removing any pos¬ 
sibility of rust, however long they may be out of use. The 
water-ways are direct and large, which insures a full sup¬ 
ply of water to the pumps, with very little loss by fric¬ 
tion, even at very high velocities. The pumps are in one 
casting with no bolted or packed partitions. 

The pumps and steam cylinders are so constructed as 
to be entirely independent, for their strength, of the 
framework or boiler. They are suspended from the frame¬ 
work, but form no part of it nor of the bracing, conse¬ 
quently no unevenness of ground, nor unequal strain upon 
the running gear, nor any expansion by heat, can throw 
them out of line. 

The Button Steam Fire-Engine, both in its boiler and 
its working parts, combines simplicity, efficiency, conveni¬ 
ence and economy in a very marked degree. 

The Button Fire-Engines, hand and steam, have been 
manufactured for more than half a century under the 
supervision of the veteran fire-engine builder, Mr. L. 
Button. 

The steam fire-engines are manufactured in six sizes 
and are all furnished with the usual supplies and attach¬ 
ments. 


HAND-BOOK OF MODERN STEAM FIRE-ENGINES. 103 


TRIALS OF STEAM FIRE-ENGINES. 

As the legitimate use of a steam fire-engine is to put 

out fires, the main object to be determined at the trial of 
steam fire-engines is to ascertain the quantity of water 
each engine can project through the air, and to what 
height and distance. Now, there are many conditions 
which assist or interfere with the efficiency of an engine, 
all of which should be carefully noted as follows: 

The time required to raise steam from the moment the 
smoke appears at the top of the chimney. 

The height of the water in the boiler. 

The rapidity with which the engine can be brought into 
action. 

If the engine moves smoothly when started. 

If steam was maintained at the same pressure during 
the whole duration of the trial. 

The pressure indicated by the gauges on the boiler and 
pumps. 

If the vibration of the engine when working is severe. 

The size of the nozzle. 

The distance the engine has to lift the water. 

The diameter and length of the suction-holes. 

The diameter of the steam- and water-cylinders. 

The number of revolutions. 

The cubic feet of water in each boiler at the time the 
fire was lighted. This is a necessary precaution, as some 
boilers contain a larger amount of water than others to 
the square foot of heating surface, consequently, the boiler 
containing the least quantity of water would steam the 
fastest. 

Whether the streams are solid or broken, steady or 
intermittent. 

The distance at which the jet begins to scatter. 


104 HAND-BOOK OF MODERN STEAM FIRE-ENGINES. 

The resistance of the wind at the time of making the 
test; and if great accuracy be desired, it would be neces¬ 
sary to protect the stream as much as possible from the 
wind. 

Every fire-engine before it is accepted should be thor¬ 
oughly tested in the manner in which it will be used at 
fires, and the test continued for three or four hours at a 
time. 

In order to test the power and condition of a steam fire- 
engine, let the boiler-pressure be about 60 lbs. to the 
square inch; close the pump outlets while the engine is 
pumping water, and let the throttle-valve remain wide 
open, when, if the engine is in perfect order, the pressure 
will rise rapidly on the water-gauge, and it will stop work¬ 
ing after a few strokes. But if the engine continues to 
move, and stops only on the centres, and the pressure on 
the water-gauge does not rise, it is evident that there is a 
leak somewhere; it may be in the piston, or pump-pack¬ 
ing, or in the pump-casing. 

To insure perfect accuracy in the trials of steam fire- 
engines, there ought to be a tower sufficiently high to pro¬ 
tect the stream from the resistance of the wind — the tower 
to be perfectly smooth and water-tight on all sides, with 
a water-tight tank at the bottom to retain the water. 
By such an arrangement, the exact height of the stream, 
as well as the quantity discharged in a given time, could 
be easily determined by measurement. 

In making tests of fire-engines, it would be desirable to 
know the quantity of fuel consumed; but, as the circum¬ 
stances under which fire-engines are used are not very 
favorable to economy, it would be impossible to compare 
the results with those obtained from engines used for dif¬ 
ferent purposes. 


HAND-BOOK OF MODERN STEAM FIRE-ENGINES. 105 


INSTRUCTIONS FOR THE CARE AND MANAGEMENT 
OF STEAM FIRE-ENGINES AND BOILERS. 

The careful maintenance in working order of steam fire- 
engines, and their judicious management when in service, 
are of the utmost importance, as they are essential to the 
development of the power so absolutely necessary to pro¬ 
duce important and satisfactory results. Though steam 
fire-engines embrace quite a variety of designs and forms, 
yet the circumstances under which they operate are very 
similar; consequently, it may be possible to give some 
instructions for their care and management that will be 
beneficial to all those having them in charge. 

When laying the fire, be sure and place plenty of shav¬ 
ings on the grate; then cover with dry kindling-wood and 
fill the furnace full with the ordinary blocks of wood used 
for that purpose. This will generally be sufficient to raise 
steam as soon as the fire is reached, that is, if the fire is 
lighted as soon as the alarm is given. 

If coal be the fuel used, keep the fire thin, in order to 
prevent clogging in the furnace, and use as large lumps as 
possible; the best coal for steam fire - engines is clean 
cannel. 

The water in the boiler when the engine is working, 
should stand at the third gauge-cock, and should never be 
allowed to be lower than between the first and second. 

Never carry a higher pressure of steam than that act¬ 
ually necessary to work the engine, as extraordinary high- 
pressures are both dangerous and injurious to the boiler 
and its connections. 

Use one pump continually for supplying the feed-water 
to the boiler, and regulate the supply so as to keep the 
water at the proper level, which will be of great assist¬ 
ance in maintaining a uniform pressure of steam. 


106 HAND-BOOK OF MODERN STEAM FIRE-ENGINES. 

If the steam does not generate sufficiently fast to work 
the engine, the variable-exhaust should be used; in fact, 
it should always be closed when the engine is started, and 
allowed to remain so until the pressure is sufficient, after 
which it should be opened. 

If the steam generates faster than is necessary to work 
the engine, opening the furnace-door and increasing the 
feed-water supply will have a tendency to check it. 

Avoid loud blowing off at the safety-valve or wasting 
steam as much as possible, as all such things are evidences 
of carelessness. 

If it becomes necessary to stop the engine with a heavy 
fire in the furnace, open the furnace-door and uncover a 
part of the grate, in order to allow the cool air to pass 
up; then throw some lumps of fresh coal on the fire, and 
start the injector, if there be one attached to the engine. 

Before starting the engine, open the discharge-gate and 
the drip-cocks of the steam-cylinder, and bring the engine 
moderately up to speed ; all steam fire-engines perform 
better work when started slowly, besides being less liable 
to accident. 

If the line of hose be very long, the throttle must be 
opened gradually, as if it is opened too suddenly, there is 
a liability to burst the hose. 

The steam-cylinders and slide-valves of fire-engines 
should always be oiled when the engine returns from a 
fire, then it will be ready for service when required again. 
Good lard oil or melted tallow is the best lubricant for 
steam-cylinders. 

All the moving parts should be thoroughly oiled before 
the engine is cleaned, so that the extra oil that escapes 
from the boxes or rubbing surfaces may be wiped up 
during the process of cleaning. 

Never let waste fire collect under or near the engine, 


HAND-BOOK OF MODERN STEAM FIRE-ENGINES. 107 


as the wheels and woodwork would he liable to he 
burned. 

All the revolving parts of the Silsby Rotary Engine 
should be kept thoroughly oiled when in use, and each 
time, after being used, a small quantity of good oil should 
be poured into the water-cylinder, and the engine turned 
round a few times, for the purpose of distributing the oil 
over the inner surface of the pump to prevent it from 
rusting. 

The pump-valves should be frequently examined, at 
least once a month, for the purpose of seeing if they are 
all intact, or if the springs are of the proper tension to 
admit of the right lift. The lift of the valves of the 
pumps of steam fire-engines generally ranges from three- 
eighths to a half inch. 

Be sure and take the engine off the springs before 
starting, and place it on them again when done working. 

On returning from a fire thoroughly examine every 
part of the engine, whether it has been worked or not, as 
many of the parts that are exposed to a great strain are 
liable to be cracked or sprung by being run over rough 
streets. 

When adjusting or repairing the engine or pump, if it 
becomes necessary to drive any of the parts together, a 
hammer or monkey-wrench never should be used unless 
a piece of sheet-copper or brass is interposed between the 
hammer and the parts to be driven. Any engineer can 
make a soft hammer for this purpose by filling a short 
piece of copper or brass tube with Babbit metal or lead. 

The piston- and valve-rod stuffing-boxes should be fre¬ 
quently packed with some of the patent braided packing 
in use for that purpose. The fact is, steam fire-engines, or 
any other class of engines, are not packed nearly as often as 
they ought to be, as, when the packing loses its elasticity, 







108 HAND-BOOK OF MODERN STEAM FIRE-ENGINES. 

it is completely worthless, and by becoming dry and hard, 
it has a tendency to make the engine thump, and also to 
cut or flute the rods. 

Before packing the glands, all the old packing should 
be carefully removed and the dust blown out; every 
engineer should provide himself with special tools for this 
purpose. A small steel bar about one-quarter inch in 
diameter and twelve inches long, drawn to a point at one 
end and having a loop or eye at the other, will effectually 
remove the old packing from the boxes ; no rough instru¬ 
ment should ever be used for this purpose, as it wifi abrade 
or scratch the rod, which will in turn destroy the packing. 

The packing for piston- and valve-rods should be a little 
larger in diameter than the gland is thick, in order to 
admit of being slightly flattened before being inserted in 
the box; it should be cut in lengths sufficient to encircle 
the rod, but the ends should not quite touch, as the pack¬ 
ing ought to be allowed room to expand. It should be 
driven into the boxes with drifts made of hard wood 
about the thickness of the gland, slightly convex on one 
side and concave on the other; the rings should be in¬ 
serted so as to break joints, and the stuffing-box screwed 
up so as to force the packing home to the bottom of the 
box, after which the gland may be slacked up for the 
purpose of allowing the packing to expand. 

To find the right size of the packing for any stuffing- 
box, measure the diameter of the stem of the stuffing-box 
and the rod with the calipers ; the diameter of the size 
of the packing will be half the difference between the 
diameter of the rod and the diameter of the box. 

The very best description of packing may be rendered 
worthless by being ignorantly or injudiciously used. 

If the leakage round the rods becomes excessive after 
the engine is newly packed, and the glands screwed up as 


HAND-BOOK OF MODERN STEAM FIRE-ENGINES. 109 


tight as they ought to be, if circumstances will permit, it 
is always better to stop and remove one or two of the rings 
and replace them in opposite directions, which will in a 
majority of cases stop the leaking. 

Continual screwing up on the glands produces friction 
on the rods, which causes them to heat and destroy the 
elasticity of the packing; if it becomes necessary to 
frequently tighten the stuffing-boxes, it is always better to 
do it when the engine is standing still. 

Pistons and valve-rod packing should always be kept 
in a clean place secure from dust, ashes, or sand. 

The object of the safety-valve is to relieve the boiler 
from extraordinary pressure, and when the proper limit 
is attained, it speaks in a warning voice to the boiler at¬ 
tendant to “ stop.” The safety-valve is only a means of 
safety when well proportioned and well cared for after 
being put in use; it should never be weighed or screwed 
down for the purpose of carrying extraordinary pressure, 
as that is not necessary when the boiler and engine are in 
good order, and well proportioned for their work. 

Safety-valves should be frequently and carefully ground 
on their seats. Pulverized glass, or the mud from a grind¬ 
ing-stone trough dried on a piece of sheet-iron or tin, is 
better for this purpose than emery. 

The steam-gauge is another means of indicating ap¬ 
proaching danger from over-pressure; and though it does 
not speak like the safety-valve, it is a silent and impres¬ 
sive monitor. Its steady moving hand on the face of the 
dial points with unerring aim to the danger. 

The steam- and water-gauges of fire-engines should be 
tested at least twice a year by the direct application of a 
column of mercury, and no reliance whatever should be 
placed in so-called standard gauges, unless they are known 
to be made by manufacturers of undoubted reputation. 

10 






110 HAND-BOOK OF MODERN STEAM FIRE-ENGINES. 

The glass water-gauge is one of the simplest as well as 
one of the most useful attachments of the steam-boiler; 
no other means of determining the height of water in 
steam-boilers can be so reliable. 

Glass water-gauges should be frequently cleaned ; this 
can be done by blowing out through the lower valve; but 
it may become necessary sometimes to use a swab, and in 
such cases the wood to which the swab is attached should 
be covered with cloth, as even wood touching the inside 
of the glass will produce an abrasion and cause the tube 
to break. 

Before cleaning the engine, all the bolts, nuts, screws, 
and keys should be examined, in order to see that they 
are all tight and in good order, so as to prevent the neces¬ 
sity of handling them after the engine is cleaned. 

To clean the bright work of the engine, whether iron or 
steel, use double or triple 0 crocus or emery cloth, which 
always should be rubbed in one direction, for any varia¬ 
tion from the same direction will scratch the work. If 
the emery cloth be backed by a piece of an old felt hat 
or collar of a coat, it will last longer and do the work 
better. 

Bright or finished work of engines should never be 
touched with the hand after being cleaned, especially in 
warm weather, as the acid in the perspiration will rust 
either iron or steel and dull the lustre of brass. 

Receipts for cleaning brass and copper will be found in 
another part of this book. 

It is not only the parts of the engine exposed to view 
that ought to be cleaned, but every part should show on 
examination that it was cared for. A handsomely kept 
engine, with all its parts clean and in good order,'■furnishes 
stronger evidence of an engineer’s capabilities than a vol¬ 
ume of written recommendations. 




HAND-BOOK OF MODERN STEAM FIRE-ENGINES. Ill 


Every engineer in charge of a steam fire-engine should 
keep an extra set of pump-piston packing on hand, and, 
in fact, duplicates of all the different parts that he would 
be likely to need in an emergency. He should also have 
either in his possession, or in some accessible place, a mon¬ 
key-wrench and wrenches to fit the different nuts of the 
engine and pump, a hammer, cold-chisels, calipers, cut- 
nippers, tin shears, dividers, spanners, monkey-jack, 
ratchet-drill, files, jack-knife, pinch-bars, etc., or any tool 
that would be likely to be needed in case of a break-down, 
or if it becomes necessary to adjust any part of the 
machine, which should be kept in conspicuous and acces¬ 
sible places, clean, and in good order; as all tools and 
appliances thrown aside or stowed away in obscure places 
are liable to be eaten up with rust and difficult to be found 
when wanted. 

ENGINEERS. 

Steam fire-engines should be in charge of practical 
engineers, not necessarily machinists, but men having a 
thorough knowledge of steam and steam machinery, and 
capable of adjusting all the different parts of their engines, 
and telling whether they are out of order or not. They 
should fully understand the causes of deterioration in the 
boilers of this class of machines, and the best means of 
protecting them from the evils which endanger their safety 
and limit their usefulness. They should have, if not a 
thorough, a tolerably good knowledge of hydraulics and 
hydraulic machines, and be capable of determining their 
capacity, and understanding the strains to which they are 
subjected when in use; these qualifications have been 
heretofore overlooked, though it seems rather strange that 
this should be so. 

That the duties which this class of men is expected 




112 HAND-BOOK OF MODERN STEAM FIRE-ENGINES. 

to perform are of a very important character, all will 
admit; and it would be difficult to assign any reasonable 
cause why they should not be encouraged to qualify them¬ 
selves for their faithful and intelligent performance; and 
while it is a fact, that many of the men in charge of 
steam fire-engines are capable and intelligent engineers, 
yet, unfortunately, they are not all so; nor will they ever 
be so, as a body, until they receive their appointments on 
real merit, instead of through political influence, and are 
retained in the service during good behavior, and en¬ 
couraged to improve themselves. Every city should fur¬ 
nish the men in charge of steam fire-engines with a library 
of scientific books, and give them an opportunity to assist 
in repairing their eugines and boilers, so that they may 
become efficient, if not expert, in their care and manage¬ 
ment ; such an arrangement would incur a small expen¬ 
diture of money at first, but this outlay would soon be 
amply returned by the increased intelligence and efficiency 
of the engineers, and the saving in the wear and tear of 
machinery, which would necessarily result from the more 
intelligent interest which they would take in their duties. 

FIREMEN. 

The subject of extinguishing fires has not heretofore 
received that careful and thorough investigation that its 
importance to every community so justly deserves, and it 
is only when that is done, and firemen trained in the duties 
of their calling, that the lives and property of the inhab¬ 
itants of all large cities will be comparatively safe from 
the ravages of that terrible scourge — fire. 

Firemen, to be efficient, should be thoroughly drilled 
and disciplined, as, without proper training, the most heroic 
valor and indomitable energy frequently are of no avail, 


HAND-BOOK OF MODERN STEAM FIRE-ENGINES. 113 


as it is a well known fact, that a few well trained men, 
accustomed to act together and relying on their own in¬ 
dividual skill, can accomplish wonders, in consequence of 
their unerring action and the precision with which they 
perform every movement; while on the other hand, a 
want of judgment of the best method to be pursued, as 
well as a want of coolness and self-possession under trying 
circumstances, have, not unfrequently, not only frustrated 
the object to be accomplished, but even aggravated the 
destruction, instead of diminishing it. Numerous in¬ 
stances might be cited where, instead of being protected, 
property was actually destroyed by a reckless use of 
water. 

The firemen of Paris have been more successful in ex? 
tinguishing fires than those of any other city in the world. 
This arises from the fact, that they are all educated in the 
science of extinguishing fires, and thoroughly understand 
the plans of all public and nearly all private buildings. 
They are regularly drilled, ordered to patrol their varioui 
districts, in order to become acquainted with the location 
of each building, and the most favorable position to bo 
taken in case of fire. They are also examined in the 
various duties they have to perform, the construction, use, 
and management of their engines and appliances, and in¬ 
structed how to act in emergencies, whatever the circum¬ 
stances and surroundings of the fire may be. 

The success of firemen in extinguishing fires depends 
upon their intelligence, perseverance, and the character of 
the appliances under their control; but, unless they are 
properly trained for the duties of their calling, how can 
they be expected, even with the best appliances, to be 
successful? 

None but healthy, active, energetic men, of good moral 
character, should be appointed as firemen; their reputa- 
10* H 



114 HAND-BOOK OF MODERN STEAM FIRE-ENGINES. 

tion for sobriety and fitness for the position being the 
only recommendations required. Such men ought to be 
retained in the service during good behavior, and in case 
of sickness receive their full pay, and if by accident they 
should be rendered unfit for service, receive a life pension. 
Medals, or other tokens of approbation, should be given 
for brave and meritorious conduct. There also ought to 
be a Roll of Honor, on which the names of men who have 
lost their lives in their efforts to save those of others, 
should be enrolled. 

USEFUL INFORMATION FOR ENGINEERS AND 

FIREMEN. 

Steam fire - engines are simply hydraulic machines 
similar to steam-pumps, and the conditions involved in 
their employment are precisely the same. They are also 
steam-engines with their machinery adapted to a special 
purpose, it being perfectly immaterial whether they are 
movable or stationary. Their means of locomotion is only 
a matter of convenience. 

The result of the working of the steam fire-engine 

may be measured by the hydraulic effect, and the power 
utilized may be determined by measuring the quantity of 
water delivered. 

The reason why steam fire-engines do not work with 
uniform satisfaction on all occasions, may be attributed 
either to leakage in the suction-hose, in the couplings, the 
pump-piston, or joints, or to the fact that one or more of 
the valves are stuck open or held from their seats by 
some substance, such as dirt, rags, or paper. 

The cause of the shaking of the discharge-hose arises 
from a want of capacity or leakage in the air-vessel on the 
discharge part of the pump. The shaking of the suction- 


HAND-BOOK OF MODERN STEAM FIRE-ENGINES. 115 


hose is also caused either by an insufficient air-vessel on 
the receiving part of the pump, or by leakage of the same. 

The area of the steam-cylinder in some of the most 
efficient steam fire-engines in the country is about three 
times the area of the pump. 

A fire-engine in good order will deliver as much water 
when lifting from a river or well, providing the lift is not 
over twenty feet, as it will do when receiving her water 
from a fire-plug at ordinary city pressure. 

The objections to high speed in steam fire-engines is 
the liability to get them out of repair or break down; the 
same objection will apply to high speed in any class of 
machines. 

The speed of fire-engines must always have a very 
narrow limit, in consequence of the difficulty of managing 
the delivery-hose, and its liability to burst at high speed. 
The range must be between 200 and 300 feet per minute; 
between these two speeds the maximum results will be 
obtained; but short - stroke, quick - running engines will 
raise water better than those that run slowly. 

A steam fire-engine will force water to whatever dis¬ 
tance the pressure on the pump will carry it; but it will 
draw water only so far as the vacuum created by the pump 
in the suction-pipe will cause the water to rise, which is 
about 30 feet in the best cases ; this varies, of course, ac¬ 
cording to the condition of the pump, the hose, etc. 

A nozzle of a bad form, or one unsuited to the velocity 
of the stream of water, diminishes the height and distance 
reached by the water to a great extent. 

If the stream of water becomes spread, so as to present 
a larger sectional area than that of the nozzle through 
which it passes, it will be found that the range will be 
proportionally diminished. 

If the water becomes spread or divided when issuing 
from the nozzle, no matter how close to the nozzle this 




116 HAND-BOOK OF MODERN STEAM FIRE-ENGINES. 

division or spreading may take place, it will be found that 
the power of the stream is instantly destroyed. 

The delivery-hose used with fire-engines is generally 
too small; better results would be obtained from hose of 
a larger diameter; but the diameter cannot be increased 
beyond certain limits, as every increase of diameter tends 
to weaken the hose. 

Hose badly made, with couplings contracting the water¬ 
ways, instead of keeping them of the same size as the in¬ 
ternal diameter, is a very powerful means of diminishing 
the effect of the force expended on the pump. 

The form of nozzle by which water is discharged from 
a force-pump, influences largely the amount of the dis¬ 
charge. The form of the suction-pipe by which the water 
enters a pump influences its efficiency, but by uniting these 
two conditions in a scientific manner, a discharge may be 
obtained greater than that due to the sectional area of the 
pipe. 

By increasing the diameter of a pipe, an enormous gain 
is secured in the transmission of water or other liquids, as 
an increase of diameter tends to diminish the friction. 

The friction in a small tube is so great that a tube twice 
the diameter will deliver five times the quantity of water. 

A pipe two inches in diameter, 100 feet long, will de¬ 
liver but one-fourth the quantity of water that a pipe 
two inches in diameter and two inches long will with the 
same pressure. 

A smooth lead pipe will deliver more water than a 
wooden pipe of the same diameter. 

The flow of water in pipes of any diameter will be sen¬ 
sibly affected by the roughness or smoothness of their in¬ 
terior surfaces. 

Pipes fully as large as the pump connections should be 
used in all cases, and where it becomes necessary to use 
long or crooked pipes, they should be even larger. 


HAND-BOOK OF MODERN STEAM FIRE-ENGINES. 117 


Short bends and angles in pipes should be avoided as 
much as possible, as they retard the liow of the water; 
but when they have of necessity to be used, they should be 
as large as practicable. 

The capacities of pipes for delivering water vary as 
the squares of their diameters, and their delivery varies 
nearly as the square root of the head minus the friction. 

Water under the most favorable circumstances would 
rise through the atmosphere in a jet to a height of about 
two-thirds of the head. Friction, of course, would reduce 
this result somewhat. 

To throw a solid jet of water an extra distance or height 
in a given time, and with a given pressure, the bore 
through which it is forced should be scientifically propor¬ 
tioned and highly finished. 

The principal causes of shaking in horizontal fire- 
engines is owing to the horizontal motion of the piston, 
want of rigidity in the frame, and leakage in the air- 
vessel. 

Roughness in the hose and in the passages of steam 
fire pumps, especially at high velocities, has a great ten¬ 
dency to diminish the theoretic duty due to such 
machines. 

The distance at which a jet discharged from a nozzle 
begins to scatter and break into spray by the resistance 
of the air in its passage through it, depends upon the 
velocity of the jet. 

The length of the discharge-hose makes a great differ¬ 
ence in the quantity of water delivered, as, when they are 
very long, the power of the engine is used up by the fric¬ 
tion of the water passing through the hose. 

The speed at which a steam fire-engine runs, depends 
very much on the following three factors: the length of 
the suction-hose, the length of the delivery-hose, and the 



118 HAND-BOOK OF MODERN STEAM FIRE-ENGINES. 

size of the nozzle. These three points determine the 
amount of water which can be delivered by the pump or 
discharged from it, and nothing can be gained by running 
an engine faster than it is capable of receiving and dis¬ 
charging the water. 

The quantity of water which any pump will lift or dis¬ 
charge may be estimated by multiplying the area of the 
piston by the speed; but this rule infers that the pump is 
fully supplied, and the water thoroughly discharged at 
every stroke. 

The movement of the piston of any pump should not 
be so rapid as to run away from the water or to prevent 
the valves from seating. 

Reciprocating pumps should always be double-acting, 
as they work more steadily and economically than if sin¬ 
gle-acting. 

All pumps should be so constructed as to require as 
little packing as possible. 

A well designed steam- or fire-pump should work with¬ 
out jarring, and without communicating motion to other 
parts of the machine. 

Pumps, to be efficient and durable, should be so designed 
as to be capable of pumping water containing impurities 
without being affected by grit, dirt, or corrosion. 

Any well made steam fire-engine or fire-pump ought 
to lift water 25 feet without priming. 

PAID AND VOLUNTEER FIRE DEPARTMENTS. 

Paid fire departments have nearly superseded the 
volunteer system in almost all the cities in the country, 
and so far have given very satisfactory results, so much so, 
that even those who offered the most stubborn opposition 
to their establishment, would not now, if they had an op- 



HAND-BOOK OF MODERN STEAM FIRE-ENGINES. 119 


portunity, vote to re-establish the volunteer system. Many 
of the abuses which from time to time crept into that 
system, and grew up under it, have been swept away by 
the establishment of the paid fire departments, as the 
number of fires has decreased, and engine-houses have 
been transformed from loafing places to establishments 
where the routine of duty is enforced and obedience sub¬ 
stituted for insubordination. 

The Paid Fire Department of Philadelphia , since its in¬ 
auguration, has fortunately been under the command of 
efficient chief engineers, and in consequence has given 
universal satisfaction. Its members are generally men 
possessing physical capacities which accord with the char¬ 
acter of the work to be performed, and trained to meet 
every emergency so far as experience and intelligence can 
suggest. A fact creditable to the members of this de¬ 
partment is, that in the performance of their arduous 
duties, they are not excelled by any other department 
under the city government. 

But while doing ample justice to the workings of the 
paid system, no word must be said derogatory to the 
character or memory of the volunteer firemen, either liv¬ 
ing or dead, as they were, in general, useful, intelligent, 
and brave men, who would not intentionally sanction or 
encourage wrong. They, in their anxiety to keep their 
companies up to a good, efficient, working standard, were 
very often compelled to associate with disreputable men. 
What calling could be more honorable, or command more 
respect in the estimation of all right-minded men, than 
that of Volunteer Firemen, who discharged all their 
rigorous and arduous duties—frequently perilling life and 
limb, or staring death in the face in the most dangerous 
form, and often laying down their lives to save those of 
others—without even the promise of a reward. 





120 HAND-BOOK OF MODERN STEAM FIRE-ENGINES. 


The hardv seaman pants the storm to brave, 

For beck’ning Fortune woos him to the wave; 

The soldier battles ’neath his smoky shroud, 

For Glory’s bow is painted on the cloud ; 

The Fireman also dares each shape of death — 

But not for Fortune’s gold nor Glory’s wreath. 

No selfish throbs within their breasts are known; 

No hope of praise or profit cheers them on. 

They ask no meed, no fame; and only seek 
To shield the suffering and protect the weak! 

For this the howling midnight storm they woo; 

For this the raging flames rush fearless through; 

Mount the frail rafter — tlirid the smoky hall — 

Or toil, unshrinking, ’neath the tottering wall. 

Nobler than they who with fraternal blood 
Dye the dread field or tinge the shuddering flood, 

O’er their firm ranks no crimson banners wave; 

They dare — they suffer—not to slay -—but save! 

The parade of the volunteer firemen held in Philadel¬ 
phia, in 1865, was one of the grandest and most imposing 
demonstrations ever witnessed on this continent. No 
potentate of the Old World could command such a turn¬ 
out, either in men or equipments. There were more than 
thirty thousand volunteer firemen in line, all of whom 
were dressed in elegant uniform ; each company had its 
own steamer, hand engine, or hose carriage. There were 
sixty-seven steam fire-engines, twenty hand engines, one 
hundred and twenty hose carriages, nineteen hook and 
ladder carriages, and twenty-seven ambulances. There 
were eleven bands of music, each band consisting of from 
thirty to sixty members; many of the fire companies 
mustered between five and six hundred meu. It took the 
procession nearly four hours to pass a given point. Such 
a demonstration was unprecedented, and could not be got 
up in any other nation in the world except this. 


KAND-BOOK OF MODERN STEAM FIRE-ENGINES. 121 


FIRE-ALARMS. 

It is an indisputable and well-known fact, that the 
quicker a fire can be discovered and taken in hand, the 
more easily it can be extinguished, the less severe the 
damage or loss will be; consequently, in all large cities of 
this country an efficient telegraph arrangement has been 
carried out by which the loss of time incurred in running 
several squares to the nearest station, as is frequently the 
case in most European cities, has been done away with. 
Each city is divided into a number of districts, each of 
which is provided with as many telegraph alarm-boxes 
as are considered sufficient to insure a speedy and imme¬ 
diate alarm, all alarms being transmitted to the central 
station, and from thence to the district in which the fire 
has occurred; and as the alarm-boxes are self-regulating, 
when one is struck no other alarm can be given until the 
first has reached its destination. 

On the first alarm being struck, a certain number 
of engines and hook and ladder trucks proceed to the 
fire; if it is a large fire, a second alarm is given, when as 
many more engines and hook and ladder trucks proceed 
to the fire, and so on until, if necessary, a general alarm is 
given, when the whole department turns out. It is only 
in case of terrible conflagrations that it becomes necessary 
to give a general alarm. Such an occurrence has not 
taken place since the establishment of the Paid Fire De¬ 
partment in this city. 

Against the cost of carrying out an efficient and relia¬ 
ble fire-alarm telegraph there can be no reasonable argu¬ 
ment offered, as it would be found that if only one ordinary 
fire was prevented by this means, the saving would more 
than pay for the establishment of a perfect system that 
would secure all that might be desired. 

11 









122 


HAND-BOOK OF MODERN STEAM FIRE-ENGINES. 



THE GOULD STEAM FIRE-ENGINE. 











































































HAND-BOOK OF MODERN STEAM FIRE-ENGINES. 


123 


THE GOULD STEAM FIRE-ENGINE. 

The Gould Steam Fire-Engine, manufactured by W. H. 
Lang, Goodhue & Co., Burlington,Vt., is shown on the op¬ 
posite page. The boiler is a vertical tubular with submerged 
smoke-flues aud tapering fire-box. By the latter arrange¬ 
ment, a larger grate surface is secured than could other¬ 
wise be obtained in any other boiler of the same propor¬ 
tions. The strains induced by the expansion and contrac¬ 
tion of the furnace-plates are also very much modified, and 
in consequence of the water-leg being larger at the top 
than at the bottom, a more perfect circulation of the water 
is attained than if it was straight. The smoke-box is 
conical in shape and made from one sheet, which gives it 
the advantage of great strength and increased draught. It 
occupies but little space, and requires but one joint in its 
connection with the boiler. 

The feed-water is heated by passing through the fire¬ 
box, a circulating-valve being placed on the outside be¬ 
tween the boiler and heater, so that when the feed-pump 
is stopped, a perfect circulation can be established between 
the heater and the boiler. This has the advantage of 
preventing the latter from being burned or injured in 
case the water should become low, or if the feed-pump 
failed, or it became necessary to take out the check-valve 
to remove any substance that would keep it from its seat 
and prevent its working, which is very often the case. 

These boilers have an uncommonly large heating 
surface and steam room in proportion to the work to be 
done by the engine, consequently they steam very 
freely, being capable of raising sufficient steam from 
cold water, in from three to four minutes’ time, to play 
through a hundred feet of hose. They are said to be very 
durable and economical. The shells are made of the best 



124 HAND-BOOK OF MODERN STEAM FIRE-ENGINES. 

steel plates, aod the tubes of the finest quality of copper. 
Every precaution has been taken to make them durable, 
efficient, and strong. 

The engines are vertical, reciprocating; the steam-cylin¬ 
ders resting on columns which are attached to the crane-neck 
frame and to the boiler. In the single engine the steam- 
chest faces to the side, and in the double engine to the 
front, which arrangement affords easy access to the valves 
in case it should become necessary to examine or adjust 
them. The pumps are hung on the lower ends of the 
same columns which support the steam-cylinders, and, like 
the latter, are attached to the boiler. They consist of a 
cylinder, casing, and valve-plate; and in consequence of 
this latter being in one piece, it can be removed for the 
purpose of examining or renewing the valve-packing by 
simply taking off the cover of the water-cylinder ; and the 
arrangement is so simple, that the valves can either be 
repaired or replaced by a new set in a very few minutes. 

The arrangement of the valves in this pump admits of 
a larger suction and discharge with less lift of valve, and 
consequently a better supply of water, and less loss induced 
by friction in the passages, than could be obtained by any 
other design that might be adopted. The valves are 
metallic with rubber packing, and are guided in their 
movements by knife-edges, which effectually prevents them 
from being kept open by any substance that may be drawn 
in with the water; when worn out, the packing can be re¬ 
placed at a very small cost. The pump-plunger, like 
nearly all others, is packed with leather, as it is more sim¬ 
ple, efficient, and economical than any other material that 
could be used for that purpose. 

There are five sizes of these engines manufactured, but 
the same outline is preserved in them all. They are made 
of the best material, and fitted in the most accurate and 


HAND-BOOK OF MODERN STEAM FIRE-ENGINES. 125 


thorough manner; all the parts are made to standard 
gauges, and are always duplicated for the same class, so 
that any broken parts can be replaced at short notice. 
The Gould Steam Fire-Engine has an excellent reputation 
for durability and economy. In fact, the design and gen¬ 
eral arrangement of the parts of these engines are highly 
creditable alike to the inventor and manufacturer. Each 
engine is furnished with the following supplies and attach¬ 
ments : 20 feet of suction-hose, 1 brass strainer for same, 
1 hydrant connection, 1 steam-whistle, 1 steam- and 2 
water-gauges, 2 discharge-pipes, full set of nozzles, 2 fire¬ 
men’s hand lanterns, 2 reflector lamps, 1 signal lamp, 1 
jack-screw, 2 oil cans, shovel and poker, all the small 
tools required for the adjustment of the different parts of 
the engine. 

ROUTINE OF BUSINESS IN PAID FIRE DEPARTMENTS. 

The following is the order of business in the Paid Fire 
Departments in all the principal cities in the United States: 

The Foreman of each company musters his men in 
quarters and calls the roll at 8 o’clock a. m. All mem¬ 
bers present are required to show or account for all prop¬ 
erty or devices belonging to the department in their care 
or possession. All being found correct, the company 
break ranks and proceed to duty. 

The Foreman makes out his morning report and for¬ 
wards it to head-quarters. The engineers proceed to clean 
their engine, the drivers to clean and care for the horses, 
the remaining members to clean quarters, such as scrub¬ 
bing floors, white-washing, splitting wood, etc. 

At meal hours, one-half* of the members proceed to their 
meals, although in some instances they go by two’s. 

There is always on the first floor in quarters one man 
11 * 




126 HAND-BOOK OF MODERN STEAM FIRE-ENGINES. 

in full uniform, for tlie purpose of giving information to 
visitors and sounding the alarm-gong to call the members 
to duty in case of a fire. It is also his duty to open the 
doors leading to the stables and allow the horses to proceed 
to their proper places to be hitched,* they being always 
in harness except when the drivers are cleaning them; and 
even then the harness is only taken off one at a time, in 
order to cause as little delay as possible in case an alarm 
should be sounded. 

The horses being hitched, the driver takes his seat, and 
each member has his position by numbers, the engineer 
standing on the platform with torch in hand, ready to 
apply it to the shavings in the furnace as soon as the en¬ 
gine passes out of the door. One hoseman rides on the 
engine to assist the engineer in making his connections 
with the plug. The remaining members take their posi¬ 
tions on the tender, which follows in the wake of the steamer 
about twenty or thirty yards. 

When they arrive at the fire, the foreman, or officer in 
command, proceeds to the premises on fire, the driver stops 
his engine at the nearest fire-plug, unhitches his horses 
and leads them to a place of safety, remaining with them. 
The engineer takes the suction-hose and makes the connec¬ 
tion between the fire-plug, and is then ready for service. 

The tender-driver stops at the engine and allows the 
men to dismount, when they take a turn of the hose round 
one of the spokes of the forward wheel of the engine, while 
the tender-driver proceeds in the direction of the fire, allow¬ 
ing the hose to unwheel as he goes ; when a sufficient quan¬ 
tity is unwheeled, the members detach it, put on the pipe 
and stand waiting orders; in the meantime the driver finds 
a place of safety for his horse and tender, in the rear of the 
engine, in order that the engineer and stoker may see what 

:: In some instances the horses are unhitched and the doors opened 
by electric appliances. 



HAND-BOOK OF MODERN STEAM FIRE-ENGINES. 127 


equipments are borrowed from the tender by other com¬ 
panies. 

The fire being extinguished and the company’s service 
no longer needed, the officer in command issues orders to 
“take up;” the engineer stops the engine, draws the fire, 
disconnects the suction-hose, closes the fire-plug, discon¬ 
nects the discharge-hose, and puts all tools in their proper 
places; in the meantime the driver leads his horses back 
to the engine. 

The tender is next sent for, the men disconnect the 
hose and commence to reel them up, the tender moving 
towards the engine. When all the hose are reeled up, 
the officer in command gives orders to proceed to quarters, 
no member riding except the drivers. When they arrive 
at quarters, the engine-driver stops in front of the door, 
unhitches his horses, and leads them to the stable. 

Ail the members assist in putting the engine into quar¬ 
ters, after which the firemen and engineers clean the fur¬ 
nace, recharge it with shavings and wood, attach the 
heater-pipe, and make everything ready in case of an 
alarm. The hosemen unreel the hose, replace them with 
dry hose, and proceed to wash those that were in use at 
the fire. 

The member or officer having charge of the house, 
enters on the blotter the name of the street and number 
of the house where the fire occurred, whether insured or 
not, cause of the fire, etc. 

In every six days each member is allowed twenty-four 
hours’ leave of absence. No two officers are off at one time. 

SALVAGE BRIGADES AND INSURANCE PATROLS. 

In most of the large cities of Europe they have organi¬ 
zations called Salvage Brigades, which assist in protecting 







128 HAND-BOOK OF MODERN STEAM FIRE-ENGINES. 

insured property from fire, and which, as a compensation 
for their services, receive salvage in proportion to the 
amount of property they are instrumental in saving 
from damage either by fire or water. In this country, in¬ 
stead of Salvage Brigades, w r e have Insurance Patrols, 
which are employed and paid by a certain number of 
Insurance Companies to look after insured property in 
case of fire. The Insurance Patrol of Philadelphia con¬ 
sists of a captain and sixteen men; they have a steam 
fire-engine and truck, and all the necessary appliances to 
be used in extinguishing fires; they attend all the fires 
that occur in the city; but their engine is only used for 
pumping out cellars where insured property is stored, and 
which is likely to be damaged by water. The Insurance 
Patrol is very liberally paid, and is not in any way con¬ 
nected with the fire department. 



FIRE-HOSE. 

Canvas was one of the earliest materials used as hose for 
fire-engines, but its usefulness for that purpose had a very 
short existence, and it is now nearly, if not altogether, super- 






























HAND-BOOK OF MODERN STEAM FIRE-ENGINES. 129 


seded by leather, which in turn is about to be superseded by 
gum or India-rubber. Good leather hose has many advan¬ 
tages over canvas, as it is stronger and capable of standing 
rougher usage on streets, roads, or uneven surfaces; but 
it has the disadvantage of being leaky and rough on the 
inside, which, as a matter of course, interferes with the free 
flow of water, and which, therefore, diminishes the quan¬ 
tity due to a given diameter under a given pressure. 
Leather hose requires to be frequently oiled to prevent 
them from getting dry, but if from neglect, or any other 
cause, they should become hard, the only way to soften them 
is to soak them in warm water until softened; then they 
should be oiled, and the oil thoroughly rubbed in with the 
hand, after which they may be hung up in an airy place. 

Gum hose has the advantage over leather of being per¬ 
fectly smooth on the inside, and consequently capable of 
delivering more water with the same pressure and diam¬ 
eter. It requires less care than leather, and, when prop¬ 
erly made, is equally as strong, if not stronger; but it is 
incapable of standing as rough usage, and sustaining more 
injury when trod on or driven over. 

Canvas hose is coming into very general use, and 
answers a very good purpose; it is light and strong, and 
when properly treated quite durable; but it is incapable 
of standing as rough treatment as either leather or gum, 
though for some purposes, and under some circumstances, 
it is superior to either. The first cost of either is about 
the same. 

HOSE-COUPLINGS. 

Contrivances for effecting an easy and rapid connection 
and disconnection between different lengths of hose and 
the pumps or water supply was an early necessity in con¬ 
nection with machines for extinguishing fires, as the time 






130 HAND-BOOK OF MODERN STEAM FIRE-ENGINES. 

consumed in fastening a badly designed or illy made coup¬ 
ling added very much to the threatening danger. Engines 
were often forced to remain inactive while fires were gain¬ 
ing ground, and the best efforts of firemen to extinguish 
them were frustrated, in consequence of being unable to 
easily connect or disconnect their hose. The screw was 
one of the earliest devices for this purpose, and is the 
most generally used at the present time, and when well 
made, is tighter and safer and stronger than any of the 
many appliances in use for this purpose. 

Its great drawbacks are, 1st, its enforced slowness in 
making the connection ; 2d, being male and female, it 
does not admit of being coupled at either end at will; 
3d, that it is liable to be mashed or knocked out of cylin¬ 
drical form, which renders it useless; 4th, the liability of 
the screw to foul or “cross the thread,” which effectually 
ruins it. This latter difficulty, however, has been success¬ 
fully overcome in the “ Button ” coupling, as a guide or 
sleeve on the point of the male coupling prevents the pos¬ 
sibility of crossing the threads when making the connec¬ 
tion. But the greatest annoyance arises from the differ¬ 
ence in the number of threads to the inch in the screw- 
couplings of different manufacturers. What is needed to 
render the screw-coupling what it should be, is the adop¬ 
tion, by manufacturers, of a national or standard thread, 
and the strict enforcement of such an understanding by 
the chief engineers of all fire departments. 

Snap- and slide-couplings are in very general use, and 
though not always perfectly tight, have the advantage of 
being easily connected and disconnected, which is a con¬ 
sideration of great importance; but for suction-hose they 
are not at all reliable. They maybe described as follows: 

The Silsby has a U-shaped head on the female side, into 
which the male, which has a circular end with a fillet cor- 


HAND-BOOK OF MODERN STEAM FIRE-ENGINES. 131 


responding to a groove in the U, is slid, and jammed 
against the washer by screwing the U farther back on the 
shank. This coupling has the advantage of being easily 
and quickly connected, and it is capable of being put to¬ 
gether by a common spanner. Its chief drawbacks are its 
weight, and the fact that it is not reversible. 

The Gaylord coupling has a circular channel on the 
outside of the male, which is inclined, and is placed against 
the face of the washer in the female, and jammed by means 
of exterior nuts. Like the Silsby, it is heavy and not 
reversible. 

The Universal coupling has two lugs projecting on each 
half from inclined planes, which lock those on the other 
half. It cannot be claimed to be perfectly tight, but it has 
the advantage of being reversible. It is also very simple 
and not easily injured, though it requires a special spanner. 

The Siamese or Y connection. This contrivance en¬ 
ables two streams to be thrown on the burning building 
without stretching two lines of hose from the engine, 
which is a great advantage, especially where there is an 
insufficiency of hose, as is frequently the case. The Siamese 
can also be arranged for connecting a line of hose from 
two engines, so that the combined power of both can throw 
a stream of water from one nozzle. 


DIMENSIONS OF FIRST AND SECOND CLASS MODERN 

STEAM FIRE-ENGINES. 

THE AMOSKEAG — FIRST CLASS. 

Height from floor to top of smoke stack. 

Length over all, including tongue. 

Diameter of boiler. . 

Diameter of pumps. 

Stroke of same. 

Diameter of steam-cylinders. 

Number of discharge-gates.. 

Capacity in gallons per minute. 

Weight, about. 

12 


8 ft. 

10 

ins. 

23 ft. 

8 

ins. 

2 ft. 

8 

ins. 


4.i 

ins. 


8 

ins. 

2 

900 

n 

ins. 

6500 lbs. 















132 HAND-BOOK OF MODERN STEAM FIRE-ENGINES. 


THE AHRENS —FIRST CLASS. 


Height from floor to top of smoke-stack 

Length over all, including tongue . 

Diameter of boiler. 

Diameter of pump. 

Stroke of same .. 

Diameter of steam-cylinder. 

Number of discharge-gates. 

Capacity in gallons per minute. 

Weight, about. 


9 ft. 6 ins. 
22 ft. 

38 ins. 
61 ins. 

8 ins. 
11 ins. 

2 

800 

7300 lbs. 


THE CLAPP & JONES —SECOND CLASS. 


Height from floor to top of smoke-stack 

Length over all, including tongue.'.... 

Diameter of boiler. 

Diameter of pumps. 

Diameter of steam-cylinders. ., 

Stroke of engine. 

Number of discharge-gates. 

Capacity in gallons per minute. 

Average weight... 


8 ft. 6 ins. 
23 ft. 

38 ins. 
4f ins. 
8 ins. 
8 ins. 

2 

600 

6800 lbs. 


THE GOULD —FIRST CLASS. 


Height from floor to top of smoke-stack 

Length over all, including tongue. 

Diameter of boiler. 

Diameter of pump. 

Diameter of steam-cylinder. 

Stroke of engine. 

Number of discharge-gates . 

Capacity in gallons per minute. 

Average weight. 


8 ft. 

23 ft. 

40 ins. 

6 ins. 
•9 ins. 

7 ins. 
3 

1000 
6500 lbs. 


THE SILSBY —FIRST CLASS. 


Height from floor to top of smoke-stack 

Length over all, including tongue.. 

Diameter of boiler... 

Diameter of pump. 

Diameter of “rotary” engine.. 

Number of discharge-gates. . 

Number of gallons per minute. 

Weight, about. 


9 ft. 4 ins. 
23 ft. 

40 ins. 


8| ins. 
13| ins. 

2 

700 

7500 lbs. 









































HAND-BOOK OF MODERN STEAM FIRE-ENGINES. 


133 


THE BUTTON—FIRST CLASS. 


Height from floor to top of smoke-stack 

Length over all. 

Width of engine. 

Number of discharge gates. 

Capacity in gallons per minute. 

Weight, about. 


9 ft. 

16 ft. 

6 ft. 

4 

700 

6000 lbs. 


La FRANCE PISTON FIRE-ENGINES. 

DOUBLE PUMP and STEAM CYLINDER.— In Four Sizes. 



EXTRA 
1st SIZE. 

1st SIZE. 

2d size. 

3d size. 

Height over all. 

9 ft. 6 in. 

9 ft. 6 in. 

9 ft. 6 in. 

9 ft. 4 in. 

Length over all. 

25 ft. 

24 ft. 6 in. 

24 ft. 6 in. 

24 ft. 3 in. 

Width overall (ordinarily) 

6 ft. 3 in. 

6 ft. 

Oft. 

6 ft. 

Weight, without sup- ) 

plies, about. j . 

8200 lbs. 

7500 lbs. 

6700 lbs. 

5800 lbs. 

Capacity, Gals, per min.. 

*1100 

850 

700 

600 

Diam. of boiler. 

36 x 66 in. 

36 x 60 in 

32 x 60 in. 

30 x 60 in. 

Diam. of pumps. 

5f in. 

5^ in. 

4f in. 

4j in. 

Stroke of pumps. 

8 in. 

8 in. 

8 in. 

6 in. 

Diam. of steam-cyl... 

9f in. 

8f in. 

7f in. 

8 in. 

Discharge gates. 

4 

4 

2 to 4 

2 or 3 


The extra first-class engine will throw a 1% inch stream 300 
feet, or a 2 inch stream 273 feet. 


La FRANCE ROTARY FIRE-ENGINES.— Class “A.” 

IN SIX SIZES. 



1st SIZE. 

2d size. 

3d size. 

Height over all. 

Length over all. 

Width over all (ordinarily), 
Weight, without supplies, about, 
Capacity, gallons per min... 

Diameter of boiler. 

Discharge gates. 

9 ft. 2 in. 
22 ft. 10 in. 
6 ft. 

7800 lbs. 
850 

40 x 60 in. 

2 

9 ft. 2 in. 
22 ft. 

6 ft. 

7000 lbs. 
700 

38 x 60 in. 

2 

9 ft. 

21 ft. 

6 ft. 

6500 lbs. 
000 

36 x 60 in. 
2 


4th size. 

5th size. 

6th size. 

Height over all... 

Length over all. 

Width over all (ordinarily) 
Weight, without supplies, abouti 
Capacity, gallons per min... 

Diameter of boiler. 

Discharge gates. 

9 ft. 

20 ft. 10 in. 
6 ft. 

5800 lbs. 
500 

34 x 60 in. 

2 

8 ft. 11 in. 
20 ft. 5 in. 
6 ft. 

4800 lbs. 
400 

32 x 60 in. 

2 

8 ft. 11 in. 
20 ft. 3 in. 
6 ft. 

4200 lbs. 
350 

30 x 60 in. 

' 2 




































































134 HAND-BOOK OF MODERN STEAM FIRE-ENGINES. 


HORIZONTAL DISTANCES THROWN BY MODERN 

STEAM FIRE-ENGINES. 


THE AMOSKEAG FIRST CLASS. 


Location. 

Date of Trial. 

No. of 

Streams. 

Diameter 

of 

Nozzles. 

Feet of 

Hose in 

each line. 

Horizon¬ 

tal Dis¬ 
tance 
Thrown. 

New Orleans, La.... 

Syracuse, N. Y . 

Harrisburg, Pa...... 

Adrian, Michigan... 

Syracuse, N. Y. 

Oshkosh, Wisconsin. 

Des Moines, Iowa... 

New Orleans, La.... 

Newport, Ky. 

Titusville, Pa. 

Saco, Maine. 

New Orleans, La.... 
New Orleans, La.... 

Apr. 30, 1867... 
June 29, 1867... 
Sept. 2, 1867.... 

Oct. 3, 1867. 

Oct. 9, 1867. 

Dec. 26,1867... 

Mav 2,1868. 

June 26, 1868... 

July 1, 1868.... 
Oct. 25, 1868... 

Aug., 1871. 

Aug. 17, 1873... 
Dec. 27,1874... 

j 

w 

u 

{} 

u 

1 

1 

{ 2 

11 

u 

1 

Inches. 

n 

it 

H 

H 

U 

H 

H 

l&ii 

H 

if 

H 

n 

n 

H 

H 

n 

it 

if 

n 

100 

50 

50 

50 

50 

50 

50 

450 

450 

50 

50 

100 

100 

50 

50 

50 

50 

50 

100 

100 

Feet. Ins. 

304 3 
295 ... 
316 11 
316 ... 
235 ... 
282 ... 
240 ... 
272 ... 
225 ... 
280 ... 
254 ... 
311 8 

230 3 
325 ... 
300 ... 
286 ... 
234 ... 
311 9? 
294 11 
321 4 


HORIZONTAL DISTANCES THROWN BY THE SILSBY 
FIRST-CLASS STEAM FIRE-ENGINE. 


Location. 

Date of Trial. 

No. of 
Streams. 

Diam. of 
Nozzles. , 

Feet of 
Hose in 
each line. 

Horizon¬ 
tal Dis : 

tance 

Thrown. 

Worcester, Mass. 

May 13,1866... 

1 

Inches. 

1 

3000 

Feet. 

150 

Ins'. 

Atlanta, Ga. 

Feb. 22, 1872... 

1 

H 

100 

284 

4 

Wilmington, Del.... 

Feb. 17, 1873... 

1 

n 

50 

283 


Sherbrooke. 

May 25,1875... 

1 

H 

50 

274 

• • . 

Lake City, Minn.... 

May 26,1875... 

1 

H 

100 

278 

• • • 

u u u 

<< u u 

2 

H 

1450 

161 

6 

Smith’s Falls, Ont... 

June 30,1875... 

1 

li 

50 

263 

• • • 

u u u 

• •• 

u u u 

• •• 

3 

1 

450 

173 

• • • 

Chicago, Ill . 

June 22,1875... 

1 

H 

100 

293 

6 

u a 

« U U 

2 

U 

300 

205 

10 

Manchester, Iowa... 

Dec. 21,1875... 

1 

n 

1500 

192 

• • • 

U U 

u u a 

1 

n 

500 

261 

8 




























































HAND-BOOK OF MODERN STEAM FIRE-ENGINES. 


135 


HORIZONTAL DISTANCES THROWN BY THE AHRENS 

STEAM FIRE-ENGINE. 


Location. 

Date of Trial. 

Number of 
Streams. 

Diameter of j 

Nozzles. 

1 

Feet of Hose 

in each Line. 

Horizontal Dis¬ 

tance Thrown. 

Indianapolis, Ind... 

Jan. 7, 1876.... 

1 

Inches. 

1 a 

1 4 

100 

Feet. 

249 

U U 

Nov. 11, 1875.. 

1 

if 

500 

275 

a u 

July 22, 1875.. 
April 6, 1875... 

1 

if 

100 

302 

St. Louis. 

1 

if 

100 

290 

Chattanooga, Tenn. 

June 14, 1875.. 

1 

if 

100 

270 

Nashville, Tenn. 

Dec. 30, 1875... 

1 

if 

200 

271 

Waverly, Ohio. 

Nov. 9, 1875... 

1 

if 

100 

260 

U U 

11 u 

• • • 

1 

if 

1000 

211 

Cincinnati, Ohio. 

May 3, 1875... 

1 

if 

1000 

208 


HORIZONTAL DISTANCES THROWN BY THE BUTTON 
FIRST AND SECOND CLASS. 


Location. 

Date of Trial. 

Class of Engine. 

No. of Streams. 

Diameter of 
Nozzles. 

Feet of Hose 
in each Line. 

Horizontal Dis¬ 
tance Thrown. 

Harrisburg, Pa. 

June, 1866... 

1st class 

1 

Inches. 

If 

50 

Feet. 

301 

« u 

“ 1867... 

U 

1 

If 

50 

326 

Cohoes, N. Y. 

Aug., 1867... 

2d class 

1 

If 

100 

267 

u u 

u u 

U 

2 

H 

100 

210 

Elizabeth, N. J. 

June, 1868... 

U 

1 

if 

100 

263 

a a 

Sept., 1868... 

u 

1 

if 

100 

265 

[ Lebanon, Pa. 

U U 

1st class 

1 

if 

100 

300.1 

Lambertville, N. J.. 

Dec., 1869.... 

2d class 

1 

if 

100 

290 

U U 

• • 

« u 

• • • • 

U 

1 

if 

100 

250 

Steubenville, O. 

May, 1870.... 

U 

1 

if 

100 

275 

u u 

. 

U U 

• • • • 

u 

1 

if 

100 

275 

Saratoga Sp’gs, N.Y. 

Sept., 1871... 

u 

1 

if 

250 

285 

Rhinebeck, N. Y.... 

Oct., 1871. 

u 

1 

if 

1000 

186 

New Castle, Pa. 

Sept., 1873... 

u 

1 

if 

1450 

219 

Peabody, Mass. 

.1 uly, 1874.... 

a 

4 

7 

¥ 

350 

180 

Aurora, Ill. 

March, 1875. 

u 

1 

If 

1000 

204 

- 1 


12* 

































































136 HAND-BOOK OF MODERN STEAM FIRE-ENGINES. 


HORIZONTAL DISTANCES THROWN BY THE GOULD 
FIRST AND SECOND CLASS STEAM FIRE-ENGINES. 


Location. 

Date of Trial. 

Class of Engine. 

No. of Streams. 

Diameter of 

Nozzles. 

Feet of Hose 

in each Line. 

Horizontal Dis¬ 

tance Thrown. 

New Orleans, La.. 

<< U U 

Sept. 14,1873 

1st class 

1 

Inches. 

H 

100 

Feet. 

314 

May 10, 1873 
Aug. 23,1874 

U 

1 


100 

320 

Wilmington, Del- 

a 

1 

H 

100 

328g 

U a 

a a a 

a 

1 

2 

100 

209 

tt tt 

a a a 

a 

2 

H 

100 

262 

tt it 

tt ll tt 

it 

1 

l* 

100 

354^ 

Chicago, III. 

Sept. 25,1874 

u 

1 

n 

100 

310 

tt it 

a a a 

ii 

2 

H 

500 

253£ 

New Orleans, La- 

Dec. 29,1872 

2d class 

1 

H 

100 

251 

U << U 

May 4, 1873. 

a 

1 

u 

100 

256 

a a a 

U U ii 

u 

2 

u 

100 

152£ 

a a a 

a a a 

u 

1 

i 

1000 

165| 

tt tt u 

July 20,1873 

u 

2 

i*n 

100 

255f 

a a a 

Aug. 29,1874 

u 

1 

HI 

100 

262 


DISTANCES THROWN BY CLAPP & JONES’ SECOND, 
THIRD, AND FOURTH CLASS STEAM FIRE-ENGINES. 


Location. 

Date of Trial. 

Size of 
Engine. 

Diarn. of 
Nozzles. 

Feet of 
Hose in 
each line. 

Horizon¬ 
tal -Dis¬ 
tance 
Thrown. 



No. 

Inches. 


Feet. Ins. 

Columbia, Pa...*. . 

Nov 1 X6X . 

2 

14 

100 

304 

Detroit Mich. 

May, 1871 . 

2 

x 4 

14 

100 

325 

Mohi)p Ain. 

Nov 1871. 

2 

x 4 

14 

100 

294 

Wilmington, Del.... 

March, 1873.... 

2 

x 4 

H 

100 

302 7 

New Bedford, Mass. 

Sept., 1873. 

2 

H 

1000 

235 ... 

Wilmington, Del.... 

a a 

2 

H 

100 

301 8 

Indianapolis, Ind... 

July, 1874. 

2 

H 

500 

284 ... 

U U 

• • • 

a a 

2 

i* 

100 

298 ... 

Chicago, Ill . 

Sept. 1874. 

2 

ii 

500 

273 

Virginia City, Neb- 

“ 1875 . 

2 

H 

100 

315 ... 

Wapakoneta, O. 

March, 1873.... 

3 

iA 

150 

265 ... 

a a 

a a 

• • • • 

3 

H 

1250 

244 ... 

Macon, Ga . 

Feb 1873 . 

4 

1 4 

1 00 

267 

Esconawba, Mich... 

June, 1873. 

4 

H 

1000 

223 ... 

Appleton, Wis. 

d u 

4 

H 

150 

267 ... 

a a 

a a 

4 

H 

1000 

227 ... 

Huntington, Ind. 

March, 1874.... 

4 

H 

1000 

202 ... 

































































HAND-BOOK OF MODERN STEAM FIRE-ENGINES. 


137 


PERPENDICULAR HEIGHTS THROWN BY MODERN 
. STEAM FIRE-ENGINES. 


Location. 

Date. | 

• a 

'SA 

O a 

° o 

a 

•H 

r— 0) 

THE SILSBY. 

O <u 

CO 

N § 

« 3 

bX) Q 

<1^ 

w 

Stratford, Ont. 

..March 1st, 1875.. 1 


1000 

'200 

Charlottetown, P. E. I. 

..Nov. 25th, 1875.. 1 

1 

1000 

197 

Allentown, Pa. 

...Sept, 30th, 1872.. 1 

11- 

350 

180 

Philadelphia. 

. 1881.. 1 

... 


225 

THE AMOSKEAG. 





Albany, N. Y. 

..Sept. 4th, 1867... 1 

11 

300 

220 

Harrisburg, Pa. 

..Sept. 2d, 1867_ 1 

U 

50 

217 

Albany, N. Y. 

..June 26th, 1871.. 1 

l 

100 

205 

THE CLAPP & JONES. 





Lebanon, Pa. 

..Nov. 1872. 1 

U 

500 

229 

Newton, N. J. 

..Oct. 1873. 1 

lA 

200 

228 

Reading, Pa. 

..Nov. 1872. 1 

ItV 

100 

202 

THE GOULD. 





Burlington, Yt. 

1 

H 

100 

185 

La FRANCE. 





Petersburg, Ya. 

..Jan. 20th, 1887.... 1 

If 


170 

Chester, Pa. 

..Oct. 13th, 1887... 1 

11 

. 

205 

Baltimore, Md... 

..Jan. 16th, 1889.... 1 

... 


247 

THE BUTTON. 





Cohoes. 

..Aug. 1867. 1 

H 

100 

267 

Cohoes. 

..Aug. 1867. 2 

1 

110 

210 

Marietta, O. 

..March, 1875. 1 

U 

1650 

165 

AHRENS. 





St. Louis. 

..Aug. 9th, 1873... 1 

If 

200 

197 

Indianapolis. 

..Feb. 7th, 1876. 1 

11 

100 

235 

Indianapolis. 

..Feb. 7th, 1876.... 2 

U 

100 

200 


*A steam fire-engine, if well proportioned and in good order, will throw 
a vertical stream about % the distance that it is capable of throwing one 
horizontally, provided the air is perfectly calm and light. 
































138 HAND-BOOK OF MODERN STEAM FIRE-ENGINES. 

THE La PRANCE STEAM FIRE-ENGINES. 

The La France Fire-Engines are both of the rotary 

and piston types. The company commenced building the 
rotary fire engines in 1874, but subsequently recogniz¬ 
ing the demand for piston engines, decided to put into the 
market an engine that would meet all requirements, and 
if possible out-steam and out-water pressure all other 
competitors. 


Ffg. 3. 



La FRANCE BOILER. 


The chief features of their rotary fire engine are the 
following: The engine cams are five armed, and are 
provided with packing plates which are forced by the 
steam against the heads, keeping these perfectly steam 
tight and allowing for expansion and wear. Packing strips 









































































































































































































HAND-BOOK OF MODERN STEAM FIRE-ENGINES. 


139 


are also placed in the ends of the arms to keep the cams 
tight. The pump cams have six arms, each packed and 
bearing on the case. The sides of the case are provided 
with removable plates, upon which most of the wear comes; 
these plates are counter-bored at the bottom to prevent the 
cams from “ pounding,” when doing heavy work. They 
may be depended upon for years, but if cut by hard 
usage, can be renewed cheaply, thereby saving the case. 

To supply the demand for steam made by the rotary 
engine, the La France boiler (see cut) is especially 
adapted; and it has a record for quick steaming and for 
holding the pressures whenever desired. 

In this boiler the crown sheet, L, is placed three inches 
below the top of the fire-box sheet, as shown at D. The 
“water nests” are suspended in the fire-box, as at K. 
The top “header,” J, is screwed through the crown-sheet, 
and so arranged that the lateral discharge openings are 
three inches above the crown-sheet at M. The bottom 
“ water rings ” are each connected with the bottom of the 
boiler by means of nipples and elbows, as shown at F. 
By this arrangement a great extent of water surface is 
exposed to the heat without obstructing the smoke-flues 
or weakening the crown-sheet with numerous openings. 

The smoke-flues, H, are arranged to encircle the “ nest 
headers,” making a direct draught for the flue through 
the nest: They pass directly through the boiler to the 
stack above, passing near the top of the boiler through 
the diaphragm sheet, A. The openings in the sheet are 
slightly larger than the smoke-flues, leaving an annular 
space through which the steam passes to the space above, 
which serves as a steam drain, from whence the steam- 
pipe carries it to the engine. This causes the steam to 
pass in films in contact with the hot flues, at once super¬ 
heating the steam and keeping the tops of the flues in the 
moisture, preventing burning and leaking. 

Above the crown-sheet a ring, I, of L-shaped cross 
section, is attached to the inner surface of the boiler shell, 
forming a receptacle, B, for mud and other impurities in 
the water, which are carried upward by the natural cir¬ 
culation of the water, and which in boilers of ordinary 







THE La FRflNfiE IMPRfiVPn PIQTniM.FWfilWF 














































































































































































HAND-BOOK OF MODERN STEAM FIRE-ENGINES. 


141 


construction find their way to the water-leg and drop 
tubes, working destruction to the boiler. Mud-plugs are 
provided for cleaning and washing the space B. 

The circulation, as shown by the arrows, is down the 
“leg,” E, and through the “nests,” K, discharging steam 
and water laterally from the openings over the crown- 
sheet, I. By this means the crown-sheet is always pro¬ 
tected by a pan of water formed by the extended edges of 
the fire-box sheet, D, and cannot be injured, whether the 
w T ater line is carried above or below the sheet, so long as 
enough water remains in the leg, E, to supply the “ nests.” 

The circulation down the “leg” and through the 
“nests” is so violent that no sediment can lodge in them. 

On account of the nest tubes being connected both to 
the crown-sheet and water-leg, the w r ater in the boiler, 
when attached to a heater, is kept at a uniform tempera¬ 
ture throughout, as the circulation of water is continuous 
through the nest of tubes and water-leg. This is not the 
case in the ordinary drop-tube boilers, as their drop tubes, 
hanging down in the fire-box have plugs w r elded in the 
ends, and there can be no circulation until a fire is started 
under them. These drop tubes have only one opening 
which is screwed into the crown sheet, thus compelling 
both supply and discharge of water to take place at the 
same end of the tube. 

It has long been a demonstrated fact that the old drop- 
tube boiler, when connected to a heater, has only the 
benefit of having the small amount of water on the crow n- 
sheet and in the water-leg heated, leaving the drop tubes, 
the principal heating surface, almost cold. 

The boiler is fed through an opening under the fire¬ 
box door, which prevents the collecting of scale or mud 
under the door ring, and also avoids the nuisance of a 
leaky fire-box door. The boiler is supplied with a dump- 
grate^, provided with a sloping flange, shown in the 
engraving, which protects the bottom rivets from the 
intense heat of the furnace. The fire is governed by a 
variable exhaust; and a pop valve is supplied, so arranged 
that it can be blown off at any pressure below the point 
set without disturbing the adjustment of the spring. 










142 HAND-BOOK OF MODERN STEAM FIRE-ENGINES. 

The La France Improved Piston Engine (see cut) is 
supplied with this same boiler; the steam and water 
cylinders being set at a short distance from, and not 
bolted to it, thus providing against differential expansion 
between boiler, engine and pump. 

The steam-pipes are short and closely coupled between 
boiler and cylinders, to prevent condensation, and in case 
of leakage are easily and quickly repacked, five minutes 
sufficing for the operation. The pump is of the vertical 
duplex type. 

The piston and pump rods are rigidly fastened together 
by a yoke, the whole being in but two pieces. Within 
this yoke plays a pitman, which connects it with the crank 
shaft. 

This arrangement runs quietly and almost without 
friction, doing away with the troublesome link boxes and 
slides, which heat and bind when engines are run at high 
pressures. 

The packing in the pump barrels is so constructed, that 
if the leather cups give way the pumps will not be dis¬ 
abled. The pumps have large water ways and the valves 
are so arranged, as to enable the pump pistons to be 
driven at a high speed to meet the demand for an increase 
of water without recourse to a larger engine. The pump 
head is hung from the frame by four hangers, and from 
it stand four posts to which is bolted the steam cylinder 
head. This enables any ordinary engineer to take apart 
pump and engine, and replace them without getting them 
out of line; and they will come to their centers without 
trouble or loss of time. 

These engines are especially adapted to heavy and 
wearing work, high draught, and long distance throws. 

The La France Fire Engines are to be found in the 
best organized departments of the country, viz: New 


HAND-BOOK OP MODERN STEAM FIRE-ENGINES. 


143 


York, Buffalo, Brooklyn, Philadelphia, Baltimore, Min¬ 
neapolis, San Francisco, Savannah, Wilmington, etc. 
They are the result of the inventive genius of Mr. T. S. 
La France, whose name they bear. 

HIGH-PRESSURE OR NON-CONDENSING STEAM-EN¬ 
GINES, FIRE, LOCOMOTIVE, AND STATIONARY. 

High-pressure or non-condensing engines are those 
engines in which the steam, after its action on the piston, 
is permitted to escape into the atmosphere, and in which, 
therefore, the pressure of the outgoing steam must exceed 
the atmospheric pressure of 15 pounds to the square inch. 
All steam fire-engines, locomotives, and nearly all station¬ 
ary engines, belong to this class. 

If steam at 30 pounds to the square inch above atmos¬ 
pheric pressure, that is to say, 30 pounds on the steam- 
gauge, be applied to the piston of a high-pressure engine, 
it will exert a force equal to' the pressure in the boiler 
above the atmosphere, providing there be sufficient room 
for the steam, and no obstacle to impede its free flow or 
lessen its pressure between the boiler and the cylinder, 
the other side of the piston being open to the atmosphere. 
The steam having to overcome the atmospheric pressure 
in its escape from the cylinder, 15 pounds from the total 
pressure of 45 pounds will be lost. 

Advantages of the High-pressure Engine. — The prin¬ 
cipal advantages of the high-pressure engine are, its light¬ 
ness, moderate first cost, economy of space, and the 
facilities it affords for an increase of pressure and speed, 
should it become necessary; hence, the high-pressure 
engine being lighter, more simple, compact, and' less ex¬ 
pensive in construction, and also less complicated, requir¬ 
ing less skill to manage and less cost to repair, is more 




144 HAND-BOOK OF MODERN STEAM FIRE-ENGINES. 

desirable for stationary, land, and river-boat purposes 
than the low-pressure engine. 

The high-pressure engine is also desirable in marine 
steamers on account of economy of space, weight, etc., 
though objectionable in consequence of its greater con¬ 
sumption of fuel. The causes which occasion this extra 
consumption of fuel are, first, the steam lost in overcom¬ 
ing the pressure of the atmosphere; second, the loss of 
heat by radiation in consequence of high pressures and 
high temperatures; third, the loss occasioned by the 
escape of heat through the chimney. 

In the high-pressure engine, pressure and speed can be 
increased to any limit within the bounds of safety. Not 
so, however, in the case of the low-pressure, as, with ex¬ 
tremely high pressures and correspondingly high tempera¬ 
tures, it would be impossible to condense the steam, and 
the result would be a loss of power, occasioned by back 
pressure. 

POWER OF THE STEAM-ENGINE. 

The power which a steam-engine can furnish is gen¬ 
erally expressed in “ horse-power.” It will, therefore, be 
of interest to engineers, and of special value to many, to 
have briefly stated what is meant by a “ horse-power,” 
and how it has happened that the power of a steam-engine 
is thus expressed in reference to that of horses. Prior to 
the introduction of the steam-engine, horses were very 
generally used to furnish power to perform various kinds 
of work, and especially the work of pumping water out of 
mines, raising coal, etc. For such purposes, several horses 
working together were required. Thus, to work the 
pumps of a certain mine, five, six, seven, or even twenty- 
five horses were found necessary. When it was proposed 
to substitute the new power of steam, the proposal natu- 
13 K 



HAND-BOOK OF MODERN STEAM FIRE-ENGINES. 145 


rally took the form of furnishing a steam-engine capable 
of doing the work of the number of horses used at the 
same time. Hence, naturally followed the usage of stating 
the number of horses which a particular engine was equal 
to, that is, its “horse-power.” But as the two powers 
were only alike in their equal capacity to do the same 
work, it became necessary to refer in both powers to some 
work of a similar character which could be made the basis 
of comparison. Of this character was the work of raising 
a weight perpendicularly. A certain number of horses 
could raise a certain weight, as of coal out of a mine, at a 
certain speed ; a steam-engine, of certain dimensions and 
supply of steam, could raise the same weight at the same 
speed. Thus, the weight raised at a known speed could 
be made the common measure of the two powers. To use 
this common measure, it was necessary to know what was 
the power of one horse in raising a weight at a known 
speed. 

By observation and experiment it was ascertained that, 
referring to the average of horses, the most advantageous 
speed for work was at the rate of two-aud-a-half miles per 
hour; that, at that rate, he could work eight hours per day, 
raising perpendicularly from 100 to 150 pounds. The 
higher of these weights was taken by Watt, that is, 150 
pounds at 2} miles per hour. But this fact can be express¬ 
ed in another form: 22 miles per hour is 220 feet per minute 

^234_x_5280 _ 220). So, the power of a horse was taken at 

150 pounds, raised perpendicularly, at the rate of 220 feet 
per minute. This also can be expressed in another form: 
The same power which will raise 150 pounds 220 feet 
high each minute, will raise 

300 pounds 110 feet high each minute. 

3,000 “ 11 “ “ 










7 46 HAND-BOOK OF MODERN STEAM FIRE-ENGINES. 

Thus, in each case, the total work done is the same as the 
same number of pounds is raised one foot in one minute. 

It will be clearly perceived that 33,000 pounds, raised at 
the rate of one foot high in a minute, is the equivalent of 
150 pounds at the rate of 220 feet per minute (or 2j miles 
per hour ), and it will necessarily follow that 33,000 pounds, 
raised at the rate of one foot per minute, expresses the 
power of one horse, and has been taken as the standard 
measure of power. It has thus happened that the mode 
of designating the power of a steam-engine has been by 
“ horse-power,” and that one horse-power, expressed in 
pounds raised, is a power that raises 33,000 pounds one 
foot each minute. This unit of power is now universally 
received. Having a horse-power expressed in pounds 
raised, it was easy to state the power of a steam-engine in 
horse-power, which was done in the following manner: 

The force with which steam acts is usually expressed 
in its pressure in pounds on each square inch. The piston 
of a high-pressure steam-engine is under the action of the 
pressure of steam from the boiler, on one side of the piston, 
and under the back action of the pressure due to the dis¬ 
charging steam, on the other side. The difference between 
the two pressures is the effective pressure on the piston; 
and the power developed by the motion of the piston, under 
this pressure, will be according to the number of square 
inches acted on and the speed per minute with which the 
piston is assumed to move. 

Thus, let the number of square inches on the surface 
of the piston of a steam-engine be 100, the effective press¬ 
ure on each square inch be 33 pounds, and the movement 
of the piston be at the rate of 200 feet per minute, then 
the total effective pressure on the piston will be 100 x 33 
= 3300 pounds, and the movement being 200 feet per 
minute, the piston will move with a power equal to raising 



HAND-BOOK OF MODERN STEAM FIRE-ENGINES. 147 


660,000 pounds one foot high each minute, (as 3300 x 200 
= 660,000,) and as each 33,000 pounds raised one foot 

high is one-horse power, and is 20, then the power of 

this engine is 20-horse-power. If this power is used to do 
work, a part of it will be expended in overcoming the fric¬ 
tion of the parts of the engine and of the machinery 
through which the power is transmitted to perform the 
work. The calculation made refers to the total power 
developed by the movement of the piston under the press¬ 
ure of steam. 

The number of feet moved over by the piston each 
minute is known from the length of stroke of the piston 
in feet, and the number of revolutions of the engine per 
minute, there being two strokes of the piston for each 
revolution of the engine. When these three facts are 
known, the power of an engine can be readily and accu¬ 
rately ascertained; and it is evident that, without the 
knowledge of each of these facts, viz., square inches of pis¬ 
ton, effective pressure on each square inch, and movement 
of piston per minute,.the power cannot be known. But 
circumstances, especially those existing when the condens- 
ing-engine was introduced by Watt, led to assumptions as 
to pressure per square inch and speed of piston which, 
though true at the time, have long since ceased to be true, 
and consequently the rules based on such assumptions are 
entirely inapplicable, and when used must of necessity 
give false results. 

With regard to how much is understood by a horse¬ 
power, there is in this country no question at all. Horses 
vary in their ability to endure protracted labor, and our 
standard may be more or less than what an average horse 
is able to do ; but that is of little importance. So long as 
the number of horse-power of an engine conveys a definite 
knowledge of its power, it is of little consequence what 






148 HAND-BOOK OF MODERN STEAM FIRE-ENGINES. 


relation it sustains to the action of any particular class of 
animals. 

FOREIGN TERMS AND UNITS FOR HORSE-POWER. 


Countries. 

Terms. 

Eng. translation. 

Units. 

English equivalent. 

English. 

French. 

German. 

Swedish. 

Russian. 

Horse-power. 
Force de cheval. 
Pferde-krafte. 
Hast-kraft. 
Syl-lochad. 

Horse-power. 

Force-horse. 

Horse-force. 

Horse-force. 

Force-horse. 

550 foot-pounds. 
75 kilogr. metres 
513 Fuss-funde. 
600 Skalpund-fot 
550 Fyt-funt. 

550 foot-pounds. 
542.47 foot-pounds. 
582.25 foot-pounds. 
542.06 foot-pounds. 
550 foot-pounds. • 


The French apply the term force de cheval to a power 
capable of raising 4.5000 kilogrammes 1 metre high in 1 
minute, which is equal to a force capable of raising 32,549 
pounds 1 foot high in a minute, which is about ^ less than 
our unit of measure. 


Horse-power. 

Force de cheval. 

10 

10.14 

15 

15.20 

20 

20.28 

25 

25.34 

30 

30.41 

35 

35.48 

40 

40.55 

45 

45.62 

50 

50.69 

55 

55.75 


Horse-power. 

Force de cheval. 

60 

60.83 

65 

65.89 

70 

70.97 

75 

76.03 

80 

81.11 

85 

86.17 

90 

91.25 

95 

96.31 

100 

101.3856 


In this country, and also in England, it has been usual 
to assign a certain horse-power for a high-pressure engine 
of certain dimensions; thus, an engine having a cylinder 
10 inches in diameter and 24 inch stroke of piston would 
be called a 25-horse-power engine, and so on with high- 
pressure engines of all dimensions. But it is utterly im- 
13* 































HAND-BOOK OF MODERN STEAM FIRE-ENGINES. 149 

possible to say of what horse-power an engine of the above 
dimensions would be, unless we knew the effective pressure 
to be exerted against the piston, and also the speed at 
which the piston is intended to move. 

There are several kinds of horse-power referred to in 
connection with the steam-engine,— the “ nominal,” “ indi¬ 
cated/’ “ actual or net,” “ dynamometrical,” and “ com¬ 
mercial.” 

The nominal horse-power is admitted to be a force 
capable of raising a weight of 33,000 pounds one foot 
high in one minute, or 150 pounds 220 feet high in the 
same length of time. The term “ nominal liorse-power ,” as 
before stated, originated at the time of the discovery of 
the steam-engine, from the necessity which then arose for 
comparing its powers with those of the prevailing motor. 
The nominal horse-power was based on the general princi¬ 
ple of the age, which dealt with low pressures and slow 
piston speeds. These quantities have of late years been 
greatly increased, and the old formula, in consequence, 
has become of less importance as a true expression of 
relative capacity. Hence, the term nominal liorse-power 
is in reality of itself nominal, as Watt, in order to have 
his engines give satisfaction, added some twenty-five per 
cent, to the real work of the best horses in Cornwall. 

But the term nominal horse-power implies the ability 
to do so much work in a certain period of time; and, in 
order to have a proper idea of it, a unit of measure is also 
employed. This unit is called a liorse-power, and, as 
before stated, is equal to 33,000 pounds raised through a 
space of one foot in one minute : it is the execution of 33,- 
000 foot-pounds of work in one minute. Work is per¬ 
formed when a pressure is exerted upon a body, and the 
body is thereby moved through space. The unit of press¬ 
ure is one pound, the unit of space one foot, and work is 







150 HAND-BOOK OF MODERN STEAM FIRE-ENGINES. 

measured by a “foot-pound” as a unit. Thus, if a press¬ 
ure of so many pounds be exerted through a space of so 
many feet, the number of pounds is multiplied into the 
number of feet, and the product is the number of foot¬ 
pounds of work; hence, if the stroke of a steam-engine be 
seven feet, and the pressure on each square inch of the 
piston be 22 pounds, the work done at each single stroke, 
for each square inch of the piston, will be 7 multiplied by 
22, equal to 154 foot-pounds. 

Indicated Horse-power. — The indicated horse-power is 
obtained by multiplying together the mean effective press¬ 
ure in the cylinder in pounds per square inch, the area 
of the piston in square inches, and the speed of the piston 
in feet per minute, and dividing the product by 33,000; 
and as the effective pressure on the piston is measured by 
an instrument called the indicator, the power calculated 
therefrom is called the indicated horse-power. 

Actual or Net Horse-power. —The actual or net horse¬ 
power expresses the total available power of an engine; 
hence it equals the indicated horse-power minus the amount 
expended in overcoming the friction. The latter has two 
components, viz., the power required to run the engine, 
detached from its load, at the normal speed, and that re¬ 
quired when it is connected with its load. For instance, 
if an engine is desired to drive 10 machines, each requir¬ 
ing 10-horse power, it should be of sufficient size to furnish 
100 net horsepower; but to produce this would require 
about 115 or 120 indicated horse-power. The net horse¬ 
power of an engine may be determined by subtracting 
from the indicated horse-power the power required to over¬ 
come the friction of the engine when in the regular per¬ 
formance of its duty. 

Dynamometrical Horse-power. —The dynamometrical 
horse-power is the net power of the engine after allowing 



HAND-BOOK OF MODERN STEAM FIRE-ENGINES. 151 


for friction, etc., and this alone is the power with which 
those who use steam-engines are concerned. Though not 
equal in point of accuracy to the indicator, the dyna¬ 
mometer gives the actual power of small engines near 
enough for all practical purposes; but it cannot be con¬ 
veniently applied to large engines. 

Commercial Horse-power. — The term commercial 
horse-power is not generally used, and, when used, has no 
definite meaning, as there is no recognized standard in use 
among engineers and manufacturers by which to buy and 
sell engines. Though the question has often been discussed, 
and its importance generally recognized, it has never been 
universally adopted, consequently, the nominal horse¬ 
power of a steam-engine means anything that the manu¬ 
facturer feels disposed to call it. It seems very strange 
that this should be so, as every civilized country has its 
standard of weights and measures, with strict laws com¬ 
pelling the observance of these standards in the various 
operations of trade. 1 The public, also, are keenly alive to 
the importance of these regulations, and no purchaser is 
so unmindful of his own interests as not to insist on ob¬ 
taining the full weight of most articles for which he pays; 
but steam-engines are almost universally bought and sold 
by a system of guess-work which would not for a mo¬ 
ment be tolerated, were it attended to be practised in 
any other branch of trade. There is great need of some 
recognized standard that would designate the number of 
square inches in the cylinder, travel of piston in feet per 
minute, and average steam pressure through the length of 
the stroke, that should constitute the commercial horse¬ 
power of engines, say, for instance, 4 square inches in the 
cylinder, a piston speed of 240 feet per minute, and an 
average pressure of 40 pounds per square inch ; such 
proportions would be capable of developing a horse-power 





152 HAND-BOOK OF MODERN STEAM FIRE-ENGINES. 

in most ordinary high-pressure engines, without the neces¬ 
sity of excessive speed or undue straining. 

Small engines are generally more economical than large 
ones, where the steam pressures, points of cut-off, and 
power developed are the 'same; as, although the smaller 
engine, at the same speed, would be less economical at 
the higher speed necessary to produce the same power, 
the gain due to high speed overbalances the loss due to 
the smaller size of the cylinder. 

Engines too large for the work to be done are less eco¬ 
nomical than if proportionate to the power required ; for 
instance, an engine of 40-horse power doing the work of 
20-horse power, and running at a high speed, the steam 
would necessarily have to be throttled down by the gov¬ 
ernor from, say, 60 or 70 pounds boiler pressure to 25 or 
30 pounds on the piston, involving a loss of nearly § in 
fuel, as the loss by atmospheric pressure in non-condensing 
engines is equally as much for 25 pounds as for 100 pounds 
pressure. 

The steam necessary to drive a 40-horse power high- 
pressure engine with no load, would give more than 10- 
• horse power in a small engine. The cylinder of any 
engine should be of sufficient size to give the full power 
required, leaving a reasonable margin for variation in 
pressure, and for recuperative power under sudden in¬ 
crease of load, and no larger. Large engines doing the 
work easily, and at a low pressure, are economical only 
when the speed is reduced in proportion to the work to be 
done. 

There are three conditions which influence the economy 
of non-condensing steam-engines: steam pressure, expan¬ 
sion, and speed of piston; for it will be found, on selecting 
any particular horse-power, that the highest steam press¬ 
ures and revolutions and the shortest points of cut-off are 










HAND-BOOK OF MODERN STEAM FIRE-ENGINES. 153 

those which show the greatest economy of steam. When 
these three conditions are all favorable at the same time, 
the maximum economy is obtained ; but when only one 
or two of these conditions are favorable, the results are so 
modified, as often to appear contradictory. 

Effective Pressure against the Piston. —The character 
of the connections between the boiler and cylinder, their 
length, degree of protection, number of bends, shape of 
valves, etc., must all be considered in forming an estimate 
of the initial steam pressure on the cylinder; while the 
effective pressure will depend upon the point at which the 
steam is cut off, and the freedom with which it exhausts; 
as it has been fully demonstrated by experience that the 
effective pressure against the piston in the cylinder of 
steam - engines, more particularly slide - valve engines, 
rarely, if ever, exceeds f of the boiler pressure, as the 
free flow of the steam from the boiler to the cylinder is 
obstructed by the action of the governor and affected by 
the character of the connection, as before stated, so that 
in calculating the horse-power of steam-engines, not more 
than f of the boiler pressure should be taken as the 
effective pressure in the cylinder. 

In comparing the relative merits of different engines, it 
is of more importance to steam users to look at the actual 
power which an engine is capable of exerting, rather than 
at the stated nominal horse-power or size of cylinder; as 
it is no uncommon thing, with two engines of the same 
diameter of cylinder and the same general proportions, 
for one to be capable of developing much more power 
than the other, even with a less consumption of coal per 
actual horse-power. 

The nominal horse-power of a high-pressure engine, 

though never very definitely defined, should obviously 
hold the same relation to the actual power as that which 









154 HAND-BOOK OF MODERN STEAM FIRE-ENGINES. 


obtains in the case of condensing engines, so that an en¬ 
gine of a given nominal power may be capable of perform¬ 
ing the same work, whether high pressure or condensing. 
But whether it does or not, the standard of a horse-power 
serves as a standard of comparison, and its utility as a 
unit of reference is not impaired, whether it represents the 
actual power of one horse or three, so long as the standard 
is universal. The following rule will be found very con¬ 
venient for those who may have occasion to estimate the 
horse-power of high-pressure or non-condensing steam- 
engines, as it is practical and correct. 

Rule for finding the Horse-power of Steam-engines. 
— Multiply the area of the piston by the average steam 
pressure per square inch ; multiply this product by the 
travel of piston in feet per minute; divide this product 
by 33,000, and the quotient will be the horse-power. 

EXAMPLE I. 


Diameter of cylinder in inches. 10 

10 

Square of diameter of cylinder. 100 

Multiplied by the decimal. .7854 

Area of piston. 78.54 inches. 


Boiler pressure, 60 pounds; cut-off, £ stroke, ) 

Average pressure in cylinder, 50 pounds;* V 45 lbs. 

5 off for loss by condensation, etc., ) 

39270 

31416 

3534.30 

Travel of piston in feet per minute f. 250 

Divide by. 33,000)883575.00 

26. horse-power. 

* See Tables of Average Pressure, pages 336, 337. 

t To find the Travel of Piston in Feet per Minute— Multiply the distance travelled 
for one stroke in inches by the whole number of strokes in inches, and divide 
by 12. See Tables on pages 177 and 178. 














HAND-BOOK OF MODERN STEAM FIRE-ENGINES. 155 

EXAMPLE II. 


Diamete*- of cylinder in inches. 10 

10 

Square diameter of cylinder. 100 

Multiplied by. .7854 

A rea of piston. 78.54 inches. 


Boiler pressure, 80 pounds; cut-off, J stroke, 1 

Average pressure in cylinder, 47f pounds; > 42.75 lbs. 

5 off for loss by condensation, etc., ) 

39270 

54978 

15708 

31416 

3357.5850 

Travel of piston in feet per minute, 300 

Divided by. 33,000)1007275.5000 

30.* horse-power. 

EXAMPLE III. 


Diameter of cylinder in inches...... 20 

20 

Square of diameter of cylinder. 400 

Multiplied by. .7854 

Area of piston. 314.1600 


Boiler pressure, 60 pounds; cut-off, | stroke, 1 

Average pressure in cylinder, 57 pounds; V 52 lbs. 

5 off for loss by condensation, etc., J 

6283200 

15708000 

16336.3200 

Travel of piston in feet per minute, 300 

Divided by. 33,000)4900896.0000 

148.* liorse-power. 


* In these examples, the fractional parts of a horse-power have been inten¬ 
tionally left out. 





























156 HAND-BOOK OF MODERN STEAM FIRE-ENGINES. 

EXAMPLE IV. 


Diameter of cylinder in inches. 20 

• 20 

Square of diameter of cylinder. 400 

Multiplied by. .7854 

Area of piston. 314.1600 inches. 

Boiler pressure, 85 pounds; cut-off, t stroke, ) 

Average pressure in cylinder, 50 pounds; > 45 lbs. 

5 off for loss by condensation, etc., J 


15708000 

12566400 

14137.2000 

Travel of piston in feet per minute. 350 

7068600000 

424116000 

Divided by. 33,000)4948020.0000 

149. horse-power. 

It will be seen from the foregoing examples, that any 
increase of pressure and piston speed makes a very per¬ 
ceptible difference in the power of the engine; but this 
augmentation of power is not obtained without an increased 
quantity of steam in proportion to the increased pressure 
and speed, except where the steam is expanded to its 
lowest available limits. 

A high-pressure engine, for instance, working with 40 
pounds of steam above the atmospheric pressure upon the 
piston, cut off at one-third, and expanding the remainder 
of the stroke, the piston travelling 220 feet per minute, 
would only exert the power for which it was nominally 
calculated, independent of friction ; but take the same en¬ 
gine, and increase the speed from 220 to 440 feet per 
minute,— which is quite practicable,— the power of that 
engine would then be doubled, less the extra friction ; but 
double the quantity of steam would have been used. 

14 





























HAND-BOOK OF MODERN STEAM FIRE-ENGINES. 


157 


Suppose steam at 80 pounds pressure was introduced to 
the same cylinder, cut off at one-third and worked expan¬ 
sively, as in the first case, the power given out by the 80 
pounds pressure would be less in proportion than that at 
40 pounds, as the exhaust would be thrown away at about 
five times the pressure that it was at 40 pounds, and a 
portion of the useful effect of the steam would be lost, in 
consequence of its not being expanded to its full limit, the 
lost portion escaping into the atmosphere and exerting a 
corresponding back pressure on the piston. 

The following method will be found very convenient, 
as it somewhat abbreviates the rule used in the foregoing 
examples for calculating the horse-power of a steam- 
engine. 

TABLE OF FACTORS. 


| Diameter of 
Cylinder in 
Inches. 

Factor. 

Diameter of 
Cylinder in 
Inches. 

Factor. 

I 8 

.152 

26 

1.608 

10 

.238 

30 

2.142 

12 

.342 

36 

3.084 

14 

.466 

40 

3.808 

16 

.609 

45 

4.82 

18 

.771 

48 

5.483 

20 

.952 

50 

5.95 

22 

1.151 

56 

7.463 

24 

1.37 

60 

8.568 


Rule. — Multiply the factor of the given diameter of 
cylinder by the speed of piston in feet per minute (using 
all below hundreds as decimals); multiply this product 
by the average pressure in pounds per square inch. This 
last product will be the horse-power of the engine. 























158 HAND-BOOK OF MODERN STEAM FIRE-ENGINES. 


EXAMPLE. 

Diameter of cylinder, 12 inches, 


.342 

2.40 


Travel of piston per minute, 240 feet, 13680 

684 


Average pressure, 42 pounds, 


.82080 
_42 

164160 

328320 


34.47360 horse-power. 


Rule for finding the Horse-power of a Steam Fire- 
Engine. —Multiply the area of piston by the steam-pressure 
in pounds per sq. in. Multiply this product by the travel 
of the piston in feet per minute. Divide this product by 
33,000, and .7 of the quotient will be the horse-power of 
the engine. 

EXAMPLE. 

Area of piston.50.2656 sq. in. 

Steam pressure.80 lbs. per sq. in.* 

Travel of piston. .200 feet per minute. 

50.2656 

80 


4021.2480 

200 


33,000\804249.6000/24.37 
/ 66000 V 2.437 

- 7 

144249 - 

132000 17.059 horse-power. 


122496 

99000 


234960 

231000 


3960 

* In estimating the power of steam fire-engines, the pressure should 
be taken at from 10 to 15 lbs. per sq. in. less than that indicated by 
the gauge, as the average pressure in the cylinders is generally from 
10 to 15 lbs. per sq. in. less than the boiler pressure. 
















HAND-BOOK OF MODERN STEAM FIRE-ENGINES. 159 

THE POWER OR HORSE-POWER OF THE LOCOMO¬ 
TIVE. 

In estimating the power of a locomotive, the term 
horse-power is not generally used, as the difference between 
a stationary steam-engine and a locomotive is such that, 
while the stationary engine raises its load, or overcomes 
any directly opposing resistance with an effect due to its 
capacity of cylinder, the load of a locomotive is drawn, 
and its resistance must be adapted to the simple adhesion 
of the engine, which is the measure of friction between the 
tires of the driving-wheels and the surface of the rails. 

The power of the locomotive is measured in the moving 
force at the tread of the tires, which is called the traction 
force, and is equivalent to the load the locomotive could 
raise out of a pit by means of a rope passing over a pulley 
and attached to the circumference of the tire of one of the 
driving-wheels. 

The adhesive power of a locomotive is the power of the 
engine derived from the weight on its driving-wheels, and 
their friction or adhesion on the rails. But the adhesion 
varies with the weight on the drivers and the state of the 
rails. 

The tractive force of a locomotive is the power of the 
engine, derived from the pressure of steam on the piston, 
applied to the crank and the radius of the wheels. 

Rule for finding the Horse-power of a Locomotive. 

—Multiply the area of the piston by the pressure per 
square inch, which should be taken as I the boiler press¬ 
ure ; multiply this product by the number of revolutions 
per minute; multiply this by twice the length of stroke in 
feet or inches; * multiply this product by 2, and divide by 
33,000; the result will be the power of the locomotive. 


* If in inches, divide by 12. 








160 HAND-BOOK QF MODERN STEAM FIRE-ENGINES. 


EXAMPLE. 


Cylinder, 19 inches. 

Stroke, 24 “ 

Diameter of drivers, 54 inches. 

Running speed, 20 miles per hour. 

Area of piston, 283.5 square inches. 

Boiler pressure, 130 pounds per square inch. 
Maximum pressure in cylinders, 80 pounds. 


283.5 X 80 X 4 X 124 X 2 
33,000 


= 681.6 horse-power. 


Rules for Calculating the Tractive Power of 

Locomotives. 


Rule I. — Multiply the diameter of the cylinder in inches 
by itself; multiply the product by the mean pressure of 
steam in the cylinder in pounds per square inch; multi¬ 
ply this product by the length of stroke in inches; divide 
the product by the diameter of the wheels in inches. The 
result equals the tractive force at the rails. 

Rule 2. — To calculate the load which can be hauled by 
an engine on a level at a given speed. —Divide the tractive 
force, as per Rule 1, by the resistance in pounds per ton 
due to friction, imperfection of road, and winds. The 
quotient is the total load in tons, comprising the engine, 
tender, and train. 

Rule 3. — To calculate the total resistance of engine, tender, 
and train at a given speed, due to friction, etc. — Square 
the speed in miles per hour, divide it by 171, and add 8 
to the quotient. The result is the total resistance at the 
rails in pounds per ton weight. 

Rule 4. — To find the load a locomotive can haul at a 
given speed on a given incline. — Divide the tractive power 
of the engine in pounds by the resistance due to gravity 
on a given incline, added to resistance due to assumed 
14* L 




HAND-BOOK OF MODERN STEAM FIRE-ENGINES. 161 


velocity of train in pounds per ton ; the quotient, less the 
weight of the engine and tender, equals the load in tons 
which the engine can haul on a given incline. 

Example, Rule I. —What is the tractive force of a loco¬ 
motive 16 inch cylinder, 24 inch stroke, 4 feet drivers, 
mean pressure 80 pounds per square inch ? 


Cylinder, 16 inches. 16 

16 


96 

16 


256 

Pressure in pounds, 80.. 80 


20480 

Stroke, 24 inches. 24 


81920 

40960 

Drivers, 4 ft. or 48 in... 48)491520 

10240 lbs. tractive force. 

2000)10240 lbs. tractive force. 

5/5 tons. 

Example, Rule 2. —What load can a locomotive, 16 
inch cylinder, 24 inch stroke, 4 feet drivers, mean press¬ 
ure 80 pounds, haul on a level at 30 miles per hour? 
Tractive force, obtained as in Rule 1, is 10240 lbs. 
Velocity per hour, 30 miles. 

30 13.2 6)10240 

30 772^ load in tons. 

171)900 

5.26 
. 8 

13.26 


Resistance in 
lbs. per ton 






















102 HAND-BOOK OF MODERN STEAM FIRE-ENGINES. 


Example, Rule 3. — What load can a locomotive, 16 
inch cylinder, 24 inch stroke, 4 feet drivers, mean pressure 
80 pounds, haul on a grade of 40 feet to the mile at 30 
miles per hour? 


Tractive force, obtained as in Rule-1. 10240 lbs. 

Resistance, in lbs. per ton, due to grav¬ 
ity (see Table of Gradients). 56 

Resistance, in lbs. per ton, due to fric¬ 
tion, winds, etc. 13.26 

Total resistance in lbs. per ton. 69.26 

Tractive force divided by total resist- j 69.2 6)10240.00 

ance equals load, in tons, engine V . 147.83 

can haul, less engine and tender.... J 
Weight of engine and tender in tons. 55.65 

Load in tons. 92.18 


TABLE OF GRADIENTS. 


RISE IN FEET PER MILE AND RESISTANCE DUE TO GRAVITY 

ALONE. 



Feet. 

Feet. 

Feet. 

Feet. 

Feet. 

Feet. 

Feet. 

Gradient of 1 inch. 

20 

25 

30 

35 

40 

45 

50 

Rise in feet per mile. 

264 

211 

176 

151 

132 

117 

105 

Resistance in pounds per 

lbs. 

lbs. 

lbs. 

lbs. 

lbs. 

lbs. 

lbs. 

ton of train. 

112 

89* 

74* 

64 

56 

50 

45 


Resistance, due to gravity on any incline, in pounds per ton, of 
train, equals 2240 divided by rate of gradient. 

EXAMPLE. 


Gradient or rise of 1 inch in 20 feet.2240 gross ton. 

20 )2240 

Resistance in lbs. per ton. 112 


The power of a locomotive may be roughly computed by 
calling it equal to | of the weight on the driving-wheels, 
when the rails are wet or perfectly dry. 






































HAND-BOOK OF MODERN STEAM FIRE ENGINES. 


163 


THE HOLLOWAY CHEMICAL FIKE-ENGINE. 


The Holloway Chemical Fire-Engine, a description 
of which has been accorded a place here, is not in any 
sense to be classed a steam fire-engine. As a modern 



fire-engine, however, it is a worthy competitor and an 
essential adjunct to any fire department claiming the dis¬ 
tinction of a first-class equipment. 

The Holloway Chemical Fire-Engines combine all 
the latest improvements in this class of fire apparatus, 































164 HAND-BOOK OF MODERN STEAM FIRE-ENGINES. 

having patent air vessels, agitators extending entire 
length of the tanks, pressure gauges, automatic reels, 
acid holders, copper tanks, etc. 

The No. 2 size (see cut) represents the large engine; 
it is fitted with two heavy polished copper tanks, having 
a capacity of 80 gallons each. Both tanks are connected 
by a patent air vessel, which, in turn, has a short, direct 
and ample attachment to the automatic reel, thus enabling 
this size engine to produce a continuous stream for any 
length of time by alternately using and charging the 
tanks, without in anywise detaching or moving the hose. 

The air vessel connecting the tanks operates in like man¬ 
ner as the air vessel on a steam or hand engine, producing 
a steady, uniform flow of the solution through the hose. 

In addition to the attachment with the automatic reel, 
the air vessel has also two independent outlets for hose 
connections, so that three streams, when necessary, can be 
had from this engine at the same time. 

The engines in appearance are very attractive, and 
being well proportioned run easily. They can be quickly 
drawn by horse or hand to whatever point they may be 
needed for service. 

In construction these fire-engines are simple, strong and 
durable; they are made of the best materials, with work¬ 
manship and finish unexcelled. The frame is of wrought 
iron, to which the tanks are securely bolted and braced 
one to the other, the whole sustained by oil tempered 
platform springs, coach-bed axles, and patent wheels with 
brass hub caps. 

The hose gallery and spool; on which there is 200 feet of 
four-ply rubber hose, with brass hose pipes, are placed over 
the arch of the frame, and the acid chamber, a simple and 
durable device, positive in its action,is conveniently located 


HAND-BOOK OF MODERN STEAM FIRE-ENGINES. 


165 


outside of the tank. The acid holder being made of glass, 
the acid will remain perfectly pure for any length of time, 
which insures instantaneous operation as soon as the tanks 
are charged—this is quickly done. 

A pressure gauge registers the amount of gas generated 
within the tanks, and also enables the attendant to deter¬ 
mine the rapidity with which the tank is being emptied. 

THE VALUE OP CHEMICAL ENGINES. 

Chemical Engines are coming into use largely in all 
first-class fire departments; their great efficiency is praised 
by all intelligent firemen. The great advantage in their 
use is promptness in getting to work—no delay of attach¬ 
ing to the hydrant, laying off four or five hundred feet of 
heavy hose, and in getting up steam, as in the case of 
steam fire-engines. They can be placed immediately in 
front of a fire; one man can ascend to the fifth or sixth 
story of a building with the hose ready to go to work, 
without danger of damaging the goods on the lower floors 
of the building; whereas on the arrival of a steam fire- 
engine, it has to be attached to the hydrant, a hose car¬ 
riage lays off the hose to the fire, half a dozen men are 
required to drag it up to the fifth or sixth story, and they 
play an inch or an inch and a quarter stream of water, 
and damage as much, or more, property on the lower 
floors by water as does the fire, making the loss by water 
sometimes triple that by fire. By the use of Chemical 
Engines the destruction by water could be avoided in a 
great measure, and every appliance which by its use will 
decrease this destruction of property should be availed of; 
if the means at present employed for that purpose is as 
destructive as fire, other and better appliances should be 
adopted ; by so doing the record of losses will be materi¬ 
ally reduced. 









166 HAND-BOOK OF MODERN STEAM FIRE ENGINES. 

THE PRINCIPLE ON WHICH THE CHEMICAL ENGINE 

EXTINGUISHES FIRE. 

Carbonic Acid Gas is heavier than air. Fire is sup¬ 
ported by oxygen and cannot burn a second without it. 
The contents of the Chemical Engine—a liquid gas many 
times more dense than air—shuts off the supply of 
oxygen and instantly smothers the fire. Fire cannot burn 
in an atmosphere containing five per cent, of Carbonic 
Acid Gas. 

Until the invention of these machines, fires have been 
met by means too slow, too late, and too cumbersome. 

The time occupied in sending for a common hand or 
steam engine, and getting it into working order, often 
proves fatal, and fires which have an insignificant begin¬ 
ning; often end in the most fearful conflagration*. 

o o 

It is a well known fact that about ninety per cent, of 
the actual fires that annually occur are discovered in 
incipient stages, and might be extinguished without 
material loss. 

Water permeated with Carbonic Acid Gas is the most 
simple and powerful means known to science for destroy¬ 
ing fire. 

Always ready, powerful and prompt, these Engines are 
capable of being used at any time, and in any place, and 
thus subduing a fire at the moment of its discovery, even 
though it be of an alarming extent, and at the same time 
avoiding damage that would follow if water alone was used. 

In cases where no water can be had the Chemical En¬ 
gine is invaluable. Its unprecedented success has been 
obtained exclusively by its intrinsic merit, and the actual 
and valuable service it has constantly rendered. 

Millions of dollars have been saved by it every year. 



HAND-BOOK OF MODERN STEAM FIRE-ENGINES. 167 


SELF-PROPELLING STEAM FIRE-ENGINES. 

Although self-propelling steam fire-engines were 
among the first of this class of machines manufactured in this 
country, their use has been very limited up to the present 
time. This arose partly from their increased weight, their 
extra first cost, and the apprehended danger of running 
them at high speeds through crowded streets ; but as they 
have been recently modified so that their first cost or weight 
does not exceed that of those drawn by horses, the preju¬ 
dice that formerly existed against them is fast giving way. 
They are very desirable particularly in the suburbs of 
large cities, as, when rightly constructed, they are as safe 
and easily managed as those drawn by horses, while they 
are more powerful and efficient. 

WASTE IN THE HIGH-PRESSURE OR NON-CONDENS¬ 
ING STEAM-ENGINE. 

A pound of good coal, it is universally admitted, will 
liberate, during complete combustion, over 14,500 units of 
heat, each unit being equivalent to 772 foot-pounds. The 
mechanical equivalent of the heat developed by the com¬ 
bustion of a pound of coal is, therefore, say 14,500x772 
•— 11,000,000 foot-pounds. A horse-power is always as¬ 
sumed to be equal to 33,000 foot-pounds per minute, or 
1,980,000 foot-pounds per hour. 

Therefore, the combustion of each pound of coal per 
hour liberates heat enough to develop 11,000,000 H- 1,980,- 
000 = say 5-horse power; and in a perfect steam-engine 
the consumption of coal would be at about the rate of one- 
fifth of a pound per hour for each horse-power developed. 

The greatest economy yet obtained in the best high- 
pressure engines may be taken at from 3 to 4 pounds of 







168 HAND-BOOK OF MODERN STEAM FIRE-ENGINES. 

coal per indicated horse-power per hour ; but for ordinary 
high-pressure engines in this country and in England a 
consumption of from 7 to 9 pounds is quite common. In 
good modern high-pressure steam-engines the useful effect 
obtained from the work stored up in the fuel may be thus 
calculated : 

Lost through bad firing and incomplete combustion 10 per cent. 
Carried off by draught through chimney 30 “ “ 

Carried away in the exhaust steam 50 “ “ 

Utilized in motive power (indicated) 10 “ “ 

100 

The minor causes of loss in the steam-engine are 

radiation of heat from the boiler, steam-pipes, and cylin¬ 
der, from leakage and condensation; but the principal loss 
arises from the escape of the steam into the atmosphere 
with only a small portion of its heat utilized; this of itself 
leads to a loss of from 40 to 60 per cent; a further loss of 
useful effect in the steam-engine ensues from a portion of 
the motive power actually developed beiug absorbed by 
friction, the useful power of the engine being frequently 
reduced by this cause by from 10 to 15 per cent. 

The use of good material, good workmanship, thorough 
lubrication and cleanliness, it is true, go far to lessen the 
friction and increase the efficiency of steam-engines; as 
also the use of high-pressure steam, high rates of expan¬ 
sion, efficient feed-water heaters, non-conductors and steam- 
packing, are conducive to economy; but what is needed to 
render the steam-engine what it should be, is complete 
combustion of the fuel in the furnace, the transfer of all 
the heat generated to the water in the boiler, the passage 
of the steam through the engine without the loss of heat, 
except such as is converted into motive power, the trans¬ 
mission of the remaining heat in the exhaust steam to the 



HAND-BOOK OF MODERN STEAM FIRE-ENGINES. 169 


feed-water, and the absence of friction in its working 
parts. In consequence of the enormous waste incurred in 
the use of the steam-engine, numerous attempts have been 
made to supersede steam as a prime mover, but as yet 
without success, as there are certain difficulties connected 
with the employment of all other agents which have as yet 
proved insurmountable. In short, there is not at present 
on the horizon the faintest dawn of the appearance of any 
mode of generating force calculated to compete with, much 
less to supersede, the steam-engine. 

Electro-magnetism, from which, at one time, so much 
was expected, is now thoroughly understood to be a far 
more costly mode of obtaining power than the combustion 
of coal. Heat, electricity, magnetism, chemical affinity, 
force, are all equivalent to each other, according to ratios 
which are fixed and unalterable. The atomic weight of 
carbon is 6; that of zinc, 32. One pound of carbon will 
develop more heat, and consequently more force, than 5 
pounds of zinc; whilst, weight for weight, the cost of the 
former to the latter is as 1 to 50. Taking into considera- 
* tion all the various sources of waste, experience has shown 
steam-power to be 90 times cheaper than man-power, 70 
times cheaj:>er than electro-motor power, and 10 times 
cheaper than horse-power. 

The discovery of a new motor, even if such a thing 
should happen, would take a quarter of a century to re¬ 
place the present arrangements; nay, even then it would 
be the duty of the engineer and the inventor to strive to 
improve the modes of employing the agent we now pos¬ 
sess, and to inquire in what direction further progress in 
its economical application would lead. 

That great improvements can and will be made in the 
economical working of the steam-engine, none can doubt, 
who have compared its theoretical capabilities with its 
present performances. 






170 


HAND-BOOK OF MODERN STEAM FIRE-ENGINES. 


TABLE COMPARING DUTY OF MODERN HIGH 
GRADE ENGINES. 


Type of Engine. 

Temperature 

of 

Feed Water. 

lbs. of Water 

evaporated 

per lb. of 

Cumberland 

Coal. 

lbs. of Steam 

perl. H. P. 

per hour. 

lbs. of Cum¬ 

berland Coal 
used per 

I. H. P. 

per hour. 

Cost of I. H. P. 

per hour 

supposing coal 

&G.00 per ton. 

Non-Condensing. 

Comiensing. 

210° 

100° 

10.5 

9.4 

29. 

20. 

2.75 

2.12 

$0.0073 

0.0056 

Compound Jacketed. 

100° 

9.4 

17. 

1.81 

0.0045 


DIFFERENT PARTS OF STEAM-ENGINES. 

THE CRANK. 

The crank being the means most generally employed 
for the conversion of reciprocating into rotary motion, the 
question has frequently arisen, whether or not there is a 
loss of power involved in its use; but upon examination, 
it will be found that the only loss of power incurred by 
the use of the crank is that absorbed by friction, which is 
the coefficient of loss in the transfer of all forces. The 
idea of a loss of power in the crank arose from the com¬ 
mon error of confounding power and pressure, and for¬ 
getting that a small force exerted over a great distance in 
a given time may develop as much power as a large force 
exerted over a small distance in the same time. 

An examination of the connecting-rod of an engine in 
motion, will show that the two ends pass over different 
spaces in a given time. If, for instance, in one stroke, the 
end of the connecting-rod that is attached to the cross¬ 
head moves through one foot, the end which is attached to 
the crank-pin, and makes a half revolution in the same 
time, passes through 1.5708 feet. 

Suppose that an engine is placed with its crank on the 
centre, and steam is admitted; no motion will be produced, 


























HAND-BOOK OF MODERN STEAM FIRE-ENGINES. 171 


* and, consequently, there will be no power developed, and 
no expenditure of steam. But let the piston make a. 

* stroke; the power exerted is equal to the force or pressure 
acting on the piston multiplied by the space passed 
through, or it will be 100 foot-pounds, assuming the data 
of the preceding instance. During the same time, the 
crank-pin has passed through a space of 1.5708 feet, and 
the force or pressure exerted has been 63.66 pounds, so 
that the power exerted during this time, or the product 
of 1.5708 multiplied by 63.66 pounds, is 100 foot-pounds. 
Consequently, there is no loss of power in the use of the 
crank, all the power exerted on the piston being imparted 
to the crank. 



Examination of the Principles Involved in the Use of 
the Crank. —With a pair of compasses describe a circle; 
draw a line through the centre, from one point of the in- 






































172 HAND-BOOK OF MODERN STEAM FIRE-ENGINES. 

tersection of this line with the circle; divide the latter into 
20 equal parts, 20 and 10 occurring at these points. Now 
suppose that the constant pressure of the steam in the cyl¬ 
inder be represented by 100, this pressure is communicated 
to the crank by means of a connecting-rod. We shall 
suppose that the above circle is the circle described by the 
crank-pin, 10 and 20 coinciding, and with the division 10 
forming a right line with the centre of the crank-shaft and 
the centre of the cylinder; of course, the points 20 and 10 
are the two points where the pressure in the cylinder has 
no effect in turning the crank, called the “ dead-points.” 

The points 5 and 15 are the points at which the effect 
of the pressure on the piston is a maximum, decreasing 
each way to zero. Supposing, for simplicity, the direction 
of the connecting-rod to remain parallel with its first posi¬ 
tion, then the effect of any pressure communicated by it to 
the crank-pin is resolvable into two factors—one acting on 
the centre of the crank, and, of course, ineffectual in pro¬ 
ducing motion in it, and the other acting tangentially to 
turn the crank. The first of these is the greater at the 
commencement, or 20 and 10 of the circle of the crank, 
and the less at the points 5 and 15 ; while the second is the 
less at the first-named points and the greater at the last; 
and this variation is (from the well-known principles of 
the composition and resolution of forces) in the ratio of 
the sines of the angle made between the direction of the 
crank and that of the connecting-rod. 

The subdivision of the crank-circle into 20 parts gives 
as the angle of each division 18°, and calling the radius 
of this circle 100, the sines of the respective angles formed 
by the crank and connecting-rods will represent the per¬ 
centage of power communicated by the latter to turn the 
former. Thus: 



HAND-BOOK OF MODERN STEAM FIRE-ENGINES. 173 


Crank-pin at 

0. 

.... 0°. 


. 0.0 

U 

a 

a 

1. 

... 18°. 


. 30.90 

« 

u 

a 

2. 

... 36°. 

a 

. 58.78 

a 

a 

a 

3. 

... 54°. 

it 

. 80.90 

a 

a 

a 

4. 

... 72°. 

it 

. 95.11 

u 

a 

a 

5. 

... 90°. 

it 

.... 100. 

u 

a 

a 

6. 

...108°. 

a 

.... 95.11 

a 

a 

a 

* 

7. 

...126°. 

a 

.... 80.90 

a 

u 

a 

8. 

...144°. 

a 

.... 58.78 

a 

a 

a 

9 . 

...162°. 

a 

.... 30.90 

a 

a 

a 

10. 

...180°. 

a 

.... 0.0 


Mean power, 63.11 


The pressure of the steam on the piston forces the 
connecting-rod twice the length of the diameter of the 
circle in the same time that the crank-pin travels through 
a space equal to the whole circumference of this circle; 
and as the circumference of this circle bears to twice its 
diameter the ratio of 100 to 63.6, it follows that the press¬ 
ures on the crank and piston are inversely as the space 
through which they move. The effects of moving powers 
may be represented, for comparison, by the product of the 
pressures into the spaces described in the same time. 

The power of the steam in the cylinder being 100, and 
moving through a space represented by 2, we may repre¬ 
sent it by 200; and the mean pressure on the crank, as 
shown above, being 63.11, moving through a space repre¬ 
sented by 3.1416, we may represent its effect by their prod¬ 
uct, 198.26, differing but 1.74 from the power given out 
by the steam in the cylinder. This difference will appear 
smaller and smaller, according as we multiply the number 
of points in the circle, from which we calculate the mean 
pressure on the crank. 

The two foregoing formulae, introduced for the purpose 

15* 







































174 HAND-BOOK OF MODERN STEAM FIRE-ENGINES. 


of showing that the crank is no consumer of power beyond 
the friction incidental to the motion of all machinery, but 
gives out all the power it receives from the steam, are 
somewhat different in their conclusions, being made by dif¬ 
ferent calculations; but they are both approximately 
correct. 



The annexed cut shows the position of the piston in the 
cylinder when the crank is at half-stroke. It will be ob¬ 
served that the piston is ahead of its proper position 
throughout the forward stroke, and that it must of neces¬ 
sity lag behind its position on the return-stroke; that 
the points of full power are not on exactly the opposite 
sides of the diameter of the circle described by the crank, 
and that a straight line passing through the centre of the 
crank-shaft cannot intersect both points. These irregu¬ 
larities, which are due to the influence of the crank and 
connecting-rod, entirely disappear at the end of each 
stroke. 

The crank of a steam-engine moves six times as far 
while the piston is travelling the first inch of the stroke as 
while it is making the middle inch; a little over twice as 
far while the piston is moving the second inch ; a trifle over 
14 times as far while the piston moves the third inch; 
and less than II times as far while the piston is making 
the fourth inch. The crank also travels less when the 
piston is making the last inch of the stroke than it does 
while it is making the first. 





























HAND-BOOK OF MODERN STEAM FIRE-ENGINES. 175 


TABLE 

(By permission, from Auchincloss’ “ Link and Valve Motions.”) 

SHOWING THE ANGULAR POSITION OF THE CRANK-PIN CORRE¬ 
SPONDING WITH THE VARIOUS POINTS IN THE STROKE WHICH 
THE PISTON MAY OCCUPY IN THE CYLINDER. 


Piston 

Crank 

Piston 

Crank 

Piston 

Crank 

Position. 

Angle. 

Position. 

Angle. 

Position. 

Angle. 


Deg. 

36| 


Deg. 


Deg. 

0.1 

0.5625 =t 9 6 

97 J 

0.813=44 

128f 

0.125 = l 

41 f 

0.575 

98§ 

0.82 

129| 

0.15 

45f 

0.6 

ioii 

0.83 

1311 

0.175 

491 

0.625 = | 

1041 

0.84 

1321 

0.2 

531 

0.65 

107k 

0.85 

134f 

0.225 

56# 

0.666 = 1 

109k 

0.86 

1361 

0.25 = \ 

60 

0.68 

mi 

0.87 

137f 

0.275 

631- 

0.687 =U 

112 

0.875 -1 

138f 

0.3 

66| 

0.69 

112| 

0.88 

1391 

0.325 

691 

0.7 

113| 

0.89 

1411 

0.333 = i 
0.35 

70k 

0.71 

1141 

0.9 

1431 

72k 

0.72 

1164 

0.91 

1451 

0.375 

75k 

0.73 

117f 

0.92 

147i 

0.4 

78k 

0.74 

118f 

0.93 

149f 

0.425 

81f 

0.75 = | 

120 

0.94 

1514 

0.437=& 

821 

0.76 

121| 

0.95 

1541 

0.45 

84k 

0.77 

122| 

0.96 

1561 

0.475 

87k 

0.78 

124i 

0.97 

1804 

0.5 = 1 

• 90 

0.79 

1251 

0.98 

1631 

0.525 

92k 

0.8 

1261 

0.99 

168f 

0.55 

95f 

0.81 

1281 

1.00 

180 


T ABLE 


OF PISTON SPEEDS FOR ALL CLASSES OF ENGINES — STATIONARY, 
LOCOMOTIVE, FIRE, AND MARINE. 


Small Stationary Engines . 

Average. 

Large Stationary Engines. 

Average. 

Steam Fire-Engines. 

Average. 

Corliss Engines. 

Average. 

Locomotives and Allen Engines 

Average. 

Engines of River Steamers. 

Average. 

Engines of Ocean Steamers. 

Average. 


200 to 250 feet per minute. 


225 

« 

li 

275 to 350 

(( 

u 

312 

(( 

u 

200 to 300 

u 

li 

250 

u 

« 

400 to 500 

u 

a 

450 

u 

a 

600 to 800 

« 

u 

700 

u 

u 

400 to 500 

u 

u 

450 

u 

u 

400 to 600 

u 

<( 

500 

11 

u 













































176 HAND-BOOK OF MODERN STEAM FIRE-ENGINES, 


TABLE 

(By permission, from Auchincloss’ “Link and Valve Motions.”) 

SHOWING THE POSITION OF THE PISTON IN THE CYLINDER AT 
DIFFERENT CRANK ANGLES, ACCORDING TO THE LENGTH OF CON¬ 
NECTING-ROD. 

{For Back-action Engines, the words “ Forward ” and “ Return ” must be reversed.) 


Piston Position 
in Cylinder. 


0.125 = f 

0.2 

0.25 = 4 
0.3 

0.333 = 4 
0.375 = | 
0.4 
0.45 
0.5 = £ 

0.55 

0.6 

0.625 = 4 
0.65 

0.666 = 4 
0.68 
0.7 
0.71 
0.73 

0.75 = f 
076 
0.77 
0.78 
0.79 
0.8 
0.81 
0.82 
0.83 
0.84 
0.85 

0.86 

0.87 

0.875 = | 


Length of 
Connecting-Rod 
4 to 1 of Stroke. 





u . 

03 0> 

£ ® 


u g 
r°£ 

free 

s -o 
® J3 

PhCB 

to 

•rH 

ft 

Deg. 

Deg. 

Deg. 

37 f- 

46# 

9f 

48 

591 

111 

54f 

661 

12# 

60 

73# 

13 

64J- 

m 

13# 

68i 

821 

131 

71f 

85# 

131 

m 

911 

141 

821 

971 

141 

881 

102| 

141 

94f 

1081 

131 

971 

mi 

131 

1001 

1131 

13# 

102| 

115f 

13# 

104 

1171 

134 

106| 

119| 

13 

107| 

1201 

121 

1101 

1231 

121 

1131 

125| 

121 

114| 

1261 

121 

1161 

117| 

1281 

12 

129| 

111 

1191 

1301 

Ilf 

1201 

132 

111 

1224 

123| 

1331 

HI 

134f 

11 

125# 

136 

10# 

127 

1371 

10# 

128| 

1381 

101 

1301 

140f 

91 

132# 

142 

9| 

1331 

142| 



Length of 
Connecting-Rod 
4*^ to 1 of Stroke. 


d • 

J-i <v 

o 

n ® 

to 

•pH 

ft 

u ^ 

«0Q 

Deg. 

Deg. 

Deg. 

37| 

461 

8| 

481 

581 

101 

541 

66 

Hi 

61 

72| 

nf 

641 

761 

124 

691 

82 

121 

721 

841 

121 

781 

90* 

121 

831 

961 

121 

89f 

1011 

121 

951 

107| 

121 

98 

110J 

121 

1011 

1131 

12* 

1031 

1151 

12* 

1041 

1161 

12 

107| 

119 

111 

108| 

1201 

Ilf 

1111 

1221 

HI 

114 

1251 

HI 

H5f 

126| 

1271 

11 

1161 

lOf 

118f 

1281 

101 

1191 

1301 

108 

1211 

1311 

101 

1221 

1321 

10 

1241 

1341 

9f 

126 

1351 

9f 

127| 

137 

94 

129f 

1381 

94 

1311 

140 

81 

133 

Elf 

81 

1331 

1424 

81 


Length 

of 

Connecting-Rod 

5 to 

1 of Stroke. 

'g . 
g 2 

2 ® 


to 

O-S 

ft 03 

is 

tf 35 

to 

s 

Deg. 

Deg. 

Deg. 

371 

454 

7f 

48f 

58* 

94 

564 

65§ 

10 

611 

72 

101 

654 

764 

104 

701 

814 

H4 

73 

844 

114 

78§ 

90 

nf 

841 

95f 

nt 

90 

101# 

nf 

951 

107 

H4 

984 

109| 

H4 

1011 

1128 

10i 

1031 

114| 

10i 

1051 

1164 

104 

108 

1181 

101 

109| 

119| 

10| 

112 

122* 

104 

114| 

124| 

10 

1164 

1254 

94 

1171 

1274 

94 

119 

1281 

91 

1201 

129# 

94 

121| 

1314 

94 

1231 

1321 

9 

125 

133| 

84 

126| 

1354 

84 

1284 

136| 

81 

130 

1384 

84 

131| 

1394 

84 

1331 

1414 

74 

1344 

1424 

74 


F 






















































HAND-BOOK OP MODERN STEAM FIRE-ENGINES. 177 


fa 

fa 

Ph 

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fa 

fa 

fa 

fa 


H 

C 

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w 

w 

fa 

a: 


fa 

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03 

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Pi 

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fa 

fa 

fa 

fa 

fa 

fa 

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fa 

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fa 

o 

h-1 

H 

fa 

fa 

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fa 

fa 

fa 

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fa 

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M 


fa 

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iz? 

>—< 


fa 

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fa 


fa 

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W 

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SHOWING LENGTH OF STROKE AND NUMBER OF REVOLUTIONS FOR DIFFERENT PISTON SPEEDS IN FEET PER 


HAND-BOOK OF MODERN STEAM FIRE-ENGINES, 


Speed of Piston in Feet per Minute. 

350 

OOCONCOO'tCC^ON^r-iOSSO 
H o © X N N CO O O lO ^ ^ ^ o: O CO 

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340 

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320 

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rH 

290 

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05 00 N t- CO lO O 03 CO CO CO CO (N 

280, 

• 

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OJOONI'COiOiO^^^COCOCOCOINC^ 

270 

OHT)(NO'#a)OHCOcOTtt(NOOON 

OOOOl^CO i X>lO'^'^’'^fCOCOCOCOCOCClCN 

• 

260 

OOOHlOCO(MNCOON^IMO©NCO 

XNt'-cOiOO'^'^'fCOCOMCONS^Ol 

250, 

MOOOMiOOOINOOCOCOHrooOOO 

OOI^COCOIOO’T'J’WCOCOCOIMWMOI 

240 

O(MC0OC000MON^(NO00N»O^ 

COl^COOO^^^COCOCOCONOIMN 

O 

CO 

Csj 

COOCONHCOWOOiOCOr-iC5r'CO't<CO 

NNCOOiO'^'tCOIOCOCOiMiMC^NI'l 

225 

UJOOHCDOOHS^NOCDCOOWIN 

NCOfflOOTjiTt<CO(»COM(N(M(M(NOq 

220, 

COC0 0 0 05^0CDeOr-05NLO^«!N 
l^COCOO^-^^COCOCCOqOKNlMWC^ 

210 

OCONOlNClOOiOMOOOCO’fCOlMH 

L-COiOOTtii#cOMCOM!NC^W(NH^I 

Ft. 

200 

NOOO^OcOCOHCTiNiOCOOIhO 

cocouj>0'f'^coo:eo(M(N(N(MCC|(Moq 

Stroke. 

®ooooncociOcooo>omcooio 

r—1 

rHi -( T-HCSC^C v; JC^COOOCOOO' , ^fTtl^lTt(0 













































HAND-BOOK OF MODERN STEAM FIRE-ENGINES. 179 


THE ECCENTRIC. 

The term “ eccentric ” is applied to all such curves as 
are composed of points situated at unequal distances from 
a central point or axis. The motion imparted to the slide- 
valve is generally derived from two principles of action— 
vibratory and rotary. When the former is the prime 
mover, the speed of the valve is the same throughout the 
stroke ; or rather, if the motion is imparted by the piston, 
the motion of it and the valve would be equal. 

Rotary motion is more often adopted than any other for 
the transmission of power and action; and, at present, 
small cranks and eccentrics are the prevailing means em¬ 
ployed to impart the motion required for the slide-valve. 
The speed of the crank and the eccentric are proportion¬ 
ally the same in theory and practice. 

Upon inspection, it will be seen that the eccentric is 
only a mechanical subterfuge for a small crank. This 
being so, a crank of the ordinary form may, and frequently 
is, used instead of an eccentric — the latter being a me¬ 
chanical equivalent introduced, because the use of the 
crank is, for special reasons, inconvenient or impracticable. 
Since the shaft to which the eccentric is fixed makes a half 
revolution while the piston is making one stroke, it fol¬ 
lows, that whatever device may be used for converting the 
reciprocating motion of the piston into rotary motion, the 
slide-valve may be actuated by an eccentric fixed on any 
shaft which makes a half revolution at each stroke of the 
piston. It will now be observed that the eccentric and 
valve connection is nothing more nor less than a small 
crank with a long connecting-rod ; the valve will there¬ 
fore move in precisely the same manner as the piston, and 
will have, in its progress from one extremity of the travel 
to the opposite, like irregularities. In other words, when 







180 HAND-BOOK OF MODERN STEAM FIRE-ENGINES. 

the eccentric arrives at the positions for cut-off and lead, 
the valve will be drawn beyond its true position—measured 
towards the eccentric—by a distance dependent on the ratio 
between the throw of the eccentric and the length of its rod. 

When the eccentric stands at right angles to the crank, 
the exhaust closes, and release commences at the extremi¬ 
ties of the stroke; consequently, if the eccentric be re¬ 
moved ahead 30°, not only will the cut-offtake place 30° 
earlier, or at a crank-angle of 120° instead of 150°, but the 
release will take place 30° earlier, or at the 150° crank- 
angle. 

For a cut-off, say of 140°, there would be required an 
angular advance of 20°, and a lap equivalent to the dis¬ 
tance these degrees remove the eccentric centre from the 
line at right angles to the crank ; for a cut-off at 160°, an 
advance of 10°, with a corresponding lap, and so on, the 
exhaust closure taking place respectively at the 160° and 
170° crank-angles. 

This closure of the exhaust confines the steam in the 
cylinder until the port is again opened for the return- 
stroke ; consequently, the piston in its progress will meet 
with increasing resistance from the steam, which it thus 
compresses into a less and less volume. Such opposition, 
when nicely proportioned, aids in overcoming the momen¬ 
tum stored up in the reciprocating parts of the engine, and 
tends to bring them to a uniform state of rest at the end 
of each stroke. Since the closure of one port is simul¬ 
taneous with the opening of the other, a release will 
take the place of the steam which was previously impell¬ 
ing the piston. 

Within certain limits, an early release is productive of a 
perfect action of the parts, since an early release enables 
a greater portion of the steam to escape before the return- 
•troke commences; whereas, a release at the end of the 


HAND-BOOK OF MODERN STEAM FIRE-ENGINES. 181 

stroke would be attended by a resistance of the piston’s pro¬ 
gress, from the simple fact that steam cannot escape instanta¬ 
neously through a small passage, but requires a certain 
definite portion of time, dependent on the area of the 
opening and the pressure of the steam. 

Angular Advance. — By angular advance is meant the 
angle at which the eccentric stands in advance of that po¬ 
sition which would bring the slide-valve at mid-stroke when 
the crank is at the dead-centres. 

Throw or Stroke of the Eccentric. —The throw of the 
eccentric is twice the width of one steam-port, with twice 
the amount of lap on one side of the valve added. 

How to find the Throw of any Eccentric. —Measure 
the eccentric from the shaft, on the heavy and light sides; 
the difference between the two is the throw. 

Eccentrics of Marine Engines. — Eccentrics of marine 
engines are generally made in two pieces and bolted to¬ 
gether, and when only a single eccentric is used, are always 
loose on the shaft. The eccentric is fitted on the shaft so 
that it can move half-way round; there are two stops on 
the eccentric, and one on the shaft. The shaft revolves 
without the eccentric until it has moved half a revolution, 
when the pin on the shaft comes in contact with one 
of the stops on the eccentric, and moves it forward in the 
direction of the motion. 

When it becomes necessary to reverse the engine, 

the engineer notices whether the piston is moving up or 
down ; if moving up, he takes the starting-bar, throws the 
eccentric-hook out of gear, and admits steam to the top of 
the piston, which immediately changes the motion of the 
engine; and when the shaft has moved round half a 
revolution, the stop on the shaft comes in contact with 
the second stop on the eccentric, and reverses its position 
on the shaft. 

16 









182 HAND-BOOK OF MODERN STEAM FIRE-ENGINES. 

THE SLIDE-VALVE. 

The slide-valve is that part of the steam-engine which 
causes the motion of the piston to be reciprocating. It is 
made to slide upon a smooth surface, called the valve-seat, 
in which there are three openings — two for the admission 
of steam to the cylinder alternately, while the use of the 
third is to convey away the waste steam. The first two 
are, therefore, termed, the steam-ports, and the remaining 
one the eduction- or exhaust port. 

Probably no part of the steam-engine has been the sub¬ 
ject of more thought and discussion than the slide-valve. 
Its proportions have been discussed in elaborate treatises, 
and its movements and functions analyzed by profound 
mathematicians, with the aid of the most extensive formu¬ 
lae and calculations; and yet, notwithstanding all these 
investigations, any one who undertakes to study its action, 
will find it difficult to discover anywhere a full or satisfac¬ 
tory explanation of the whole subject. If some of our 
learned professors would instruct engineers how to design 
and construct a slide-valve that would give better results, 
under the varying circumstances to which slide-valves are 
subjected, than any now in use, it would do more to make 
them familiar with the principles involved in the construc¬ 
tion and working of the slide-valve than any geometrical 
solution of its movements, however learned, that might be 
given, as such theories are but very imperfectly understood 
by engineers in general. 

In examining the special application of the slide-valve 

to the steam-engine, it will be necessary to consider what 
the requirements of the engine are; for the valves, of 
whatever kind, being to that machine what the lungs are 
to the body, must necessarily be so acted upon as to reg¬ 
ulate the admission and escape of the steam, which is its 


HAND-BOOK OF MODERN STEAM FIRE-ENGINES. 183 

breath, in accordance with the conditions imposed by the 
motion of the piston. 

The valve may be said to be the vital principle of the 
engine. It controls the outlet to the coal and wood pile. 
It is, therefore, of the highest importance that it should 
work practically under all circumstances — the admission 
of steam being one thing and its escape another, though 
both may be regulated by what is called one valve, be¬ 
cause it is made in one piece, yet this is not by any means 
necessary. Four separate valves may be, and sometimes 
are, employed in stationary engines,— a steam- and an ex¬ 
haust-valve at each end of the cylinder ; but the functions 
of all these are distinctly performed by the common three- 
ported slide-valve. 



It is evident that the admission cannot continue longer, 
in any case, than the stroke does, so that by the time that 
is completed, the valve must have opened and closed the 
port. These conditions determine the modification of the 
movement which must be used, and the greatest breadth 
of the port for any assumed travel of valve. 

When the motion of a slide-valve is produced by means 
of an eccentric keyed to the crank-shaft and revolving 
with it, the relative positions of the piston and slide-valve 
depend upon the relative positions of the crank and eccen¬ 
tric. The greatest opening of the port is half the travel 
of the valve; in this case the steam is admitted during the 
whole stroke of the piston, at the beginning of which the 
valve, which has no lap, is at the centre of its travel. 

























184 HAND-BOOK OF MODERN STEAM FIRE-ENGINES. 

If the eccentric be so placed that at the beginning of 
the stroke of the piston the valve is not at the centre of 
its travel, the opening of the port will be reduced, and it 
will be closed before the piston completes its stroke. In 
this case, the opening of the port will be less than half 
the travel, by so much as the valve, at the beginning of 
the stroke of the piston, varies from its original central 
position. When the valve is at half-stroke, it will over¬ 
lap the port on the opening edge to the same extent. 
The point in the stroke of the piston at which the port 
will be closed and the steam cut off, will depend upon the 
angular position of the eccentric at the beginning of the 
stroke. When the valve is so formed that, at half-stroke, 
the faces of the valve do not close the steam-ports inter¬ 
nally, the amount by-which each face comes short of the 
inner edge of the port is known as inside clearance. 

From the nature of the valve motion, it follows that the 
distribution is controlled by the “ outer and inner edges 
of the extreme-ports and of the valve.” The mere width 
of the exhaust-port or thickness of bars is immaterial to 
the timing of the distribution. The extreme edges of the 
steam-ports and those of the valve regulate the admission 
and suppression ; and the inner edges of the ports and the 
valve command the release and compression. 

For every stroke of the piston, four different events 
occur — the admission, the suppression, the release, and 
the compression. The advance of the valve denotes the 
distance which the valve has travelled beyond its middle 
position when the piston is at the end of the stroke, and 
is known as linear advance. 

The slide-valve is more wasteful of steam than the pop¬ 
pet, or other forms of valve, in consequence of the long 
ports necessary to its use ; but even with this defect, it must 
be conceded that nothing has as yet been introduced which 


HAND-BOOK OF MODERN STEAM FIRE-ENGINES. 185 


has so well answered the purpose of controlling the induc¬ 
tion and eduction of the steam to and from the cylinder 
as the slide-valve. 



Position of the Slide-valve when the Crank is at the “ Dead-Centre." 


When correctly designed and well made, the slide- 

valve is one of the simplest and most effective devices ever 
invented for its office; and, on account of its simplicity 
of form, durability, and positive action, it has been able to 
successfully compete with all other forms of valves ; nor is 
it at all likely that it will ever be superseded by any other 
form for engines of moderate size, more particularly where 
high piston speed is an object. The friction of the slide- 
valve depends to a certain extent on the distance traversed 
by the valve. Hence it is desirable to reduce the travel as 
much as possible, more especially in the case of large en¬ 
gines. This object can be accomplished by increasing the 
number of ports as shown in the accompanying cut; so 
that one-half the travel will be sufficient to give a full 
port area. 



16 * 


Short Travel Slide-valves. 















































186 HAND-BOOK OF MODERN STEAM FIRE-ENGINES. 

PROPORTIONS OF SLIDE-VALVES. 

In order to show how to properly proportion a slide- 
valve, it will be necessary to give an example. 

Example. —Length of valve, 84 inches; exhaust opening 
under valve, 4 inches; exhaust-port in face, 24 inches; 
inside bridge, f inches thick ; steam-ports, 1-J inches wide; 
travel of valve, 44 inches; lead y 1 ^. These proportions 
give a one-inch lap on each side when the valve is in the 
middle of its travel; the travel of this valve is 3.6 times 
the width of the port, which may be accepted as a good 
proportion for ordinary practice. 

LAP ON THE SLIDE-VALVE. 

The term “lap” is familiar to all steam-engineers, as 
denoting those portions or edges of the working-faces of 
the valves which extend past or beyond the ports. The 
object of lap is to work the steam expansively; as, when 
the valve has lap, it cuts off the steam supply to the piston 
before the latter has travelled to the end of the stroke; 
without lap, there would be no expansion, because admis¬ 
sion and release would occur at the same time. Lap also 
induces an early and efficient release, because the lead of 
the exhaust, or the amount which the valve is open to the 
exhaust at the end of the stroke, is increased by the 
amount of lap on the outside. Lap on the steam side is 
termed the outside lap , while lap on the exhaust side is 
known as inside lap. 

With a common slide-valve, it is not practicable to cut 
off the steam supply to the cylinder sufficiently early in 
the stroke to effect as large a degree of expansion as by 
some other means, because it would require the valve to 
have an excessive amount of outside lap, and the exhaust 


HAND-BOOK OF MODERN STEAM FIRE-ENGINES. 187 

would take place too early in the stroke, thus causing the 
piston to travel a large proportion of the latter part of the 
stroke without having any pressure of steam behind it. 

Slide-valves work to better advantage when the lap is 
so proportioned as to cut off the steam at from two-thirds 
to three-quarters ot the stroke, than at any other point, be¬ 
cause of the comparatively long stroke of the valve when 
more lap is added, and the great amount of friction gen¬ 
erated between the valve-face and its seat. The amount 
ot inside lap is at all times to be governed by the speed 
at which the engine is to run, but it should never, in any 
case, be less than y 1 ^ of an inch. Fast-running engines 
might have inside lap equal to one-half the outside lap, 
while engines travelling at slow speed might have a little 
more. 

The slide-valve is sometimes so proportioned as to give 
it inside clearance, that is, the exhaust cavity in the face 
of the valve is wider than the nearest edges of the steam- 
ports in the seat, so that, when the valve is placed centrally 
over the ports, there is a clear communication, to the ex¬ 
tent of the clearance, between each steam-port and the 
exhaust. The object of clearance is to give the valve a 
freer exhaust; but this is a grave mistake, as, in propor¬ 
tioning a slide-valve, the inside extreme should never ex¬ 
ceed line and line. 

Rule for finding the Required Amount of Lap for a Slide- 
valve corresponding to any desired Point of Cut-off. — From 
the length of stroke of piston, subtract the length of the 
stroke that is to be made before the steam is cut off; 
divide the remainder by the stroke of the piston, and ex¬ 
tract the square root of the quotient. Multiply this root 
by half the throw of the valve; from the product sub¬ 
tract half the lead, and the remainder will give the lap 
required. 





188 HAND-BOOK OF MODERN STEAM FIRE-ENGINES. 

TABL K 

SHOWING THE AMOUNT OF “ LAP ” REQUIRED FOR SLIDE-VALVES 
OF STATIONARY ENGINES WHEN THE STEAM IS TO BE WORKED 
EXPANSIVELY. 

The travel of the valves being ascertained, and also the 
amount of cut-off desired, the following table shows the 
amount of “lap.” For instance, if a valve has f lap, it 
will overlap each steam-port | of an inch v r hen in the 
centre of its travel. “ Lap ” is not used on the valves of 
steam fire-engines, as none of them, that the writer is 
aware of, works steam expansively. 


Travel of 
the Valve 
iu Inches. 

The Travel of the Piston where the Steam is cut otf. 

l 

4 

i 

3" 

5 

T2 

1 

2 

7 

1 2 

2 

3- 

3 

¥ 

1 0 

12 

• 


The required 

‘ Lap.” 





2 

1 

8 

¥ 

11 

1 6 

5 

8 

9 

1 6 

1 

2 


7 

1 A 

3 

8 

2| 

iA 

1 

7 

8 

1 3 

1 6 

11 
16 

9 

T6 


1 

2 

7 

l6 

3 

i f 

1_3_ 

- L 1 6 

H 

1 

1 5 
T6 

3 

4 


5 

8 

y 

T7f 

H 

i-l 

1 5 

1 1 6 

1A 

1 f 

1A 

l 


8 

3 

4 

4 

if 

1 9 

iA 

1* 

f f 

1 LG 

1 


1 3 

1 6 


2 

113 

A I 6 

i A 

If 

if 

1 4 

1 

i 

7 

8 

5 

*2 1 
" 8 

2 

iff 

iA 

3 f 

If 

1 

1 

¥ 

1 

6* 

2>i_ 

■“1 6 

9 3 
"Iff 

2 

iff 

1 9 

J 8 

1 2 

1 

3 

8 

H 

6 

2i 

9JL 

-1 6 

2A 
w 1 6 

2 

1-14 

1 1 6 

1 5 

1 8 

1 

1 

2“ 

1 3 

i 16 

6| 

2 | 

9 J> 

"1 6 

o_7_ 

"l 6 

2 3 

Z 3 2 

2 

113 

A l^ 

1 

5 

8 

U 

7 

3 

Ol 1 
"16 

2 9_ 
Z I6 

O a 
" 8 

O 3 
"3 2 

2 

1 

3 

¥ 

if 

n 

Q 3 

6" 

3 

Oil 

"16 

O 1 
" 2 

2 4 

" 8 

9 3 

"32 

1 

7 

8 

if 

8 

Q 5 

3 A 

3 

9 5 
^ 8 

0 1 

2 

9 3 
z 7T 

2 


if 

81 

2 5 
d 8 

3fV 

2 3 

013 

z l¥ 

2* A 
"■1 6 

9 1 
" 2 

2 

1 

8 

if 1 

9 

Q 1 3 

3 I 

2 9 
^TIT 

3 

913 

"16 

91-1. 

"l 6 

2 

1 

¥ 

if 

91 

4 

3 ft 

2 5 
d 8 

3 A 

3 

Ol 3 

2 

3 

8 

2 

10 

4f 

4 

013 
°1 6 

3A 

2 3 
^1 6 

3 

2 

1 

2 

2 1 1 

"T6 

101 

4 t V 

4 T 

4 

3 f 

2 5 
^Te- 

2 1 

6 8 

2 

5 

8 

9 3 
"1 6 

11 

4A 

4 t V 

4 \ 

3 f 

3 i 

2 3 
”T6 

2 

¥ 

2f 

14- 

4f* 

4 9 
*1 6 

4 re 

3 f 

3 f 

Q 3 
^ '8 

2 

7 

8 

2 i- 

12 

5 

4 1 3 
%6 

4t 9 6 

4 f 

4 

2 & 

0 8 

3 







































HAND-BOOK OF MODERN STEAM FIRE-ENGINES. 189 


Rule for finding the required “Lap” for Slide-valves 
when the Travel of the Valve is known. — Multiply the 
given stroke of the valve by the decimal numbers under 
each point of cut-off. 

Cut-off 1 27, 2 3 5 7 11 

Uii, 2 12 3 4 6 5 12 

Multiplier, .354 .323 .289 .250 .204 .177 .144 


LEAD OF THE SLIDE-VALVE. 


The object of the lead is to enable the steam to act as 
a cushion against the piston before it arrives at the end 
of the stroke, and cause it to reverse its motion easily; and 
also to supply the steam of full pressure to the piston from 
the instant it has passed its dead-centre. When the work 
an engine has to perform is very irregular, as is generally 
the case in rolling-mills, or if the different parts of the 
engine be badly worn or have much lost motion, con¬ 
siderable lead is absolutely necessary, in Order that the 
steam admitted may offer an opposing and gradual force 
in a direction opposite to that in which the engine is mov¬ 
ing, and take up the play in the different parts before the 
piston has reversed its motion. If the piston, after pass¬ 
ing the centre, should meet with no opposing force, it 
would travel very fast during the time in which the play 
was being taken up, and, when the valve opened again, it 
would receive a check from the action of the steam which 
would cause it to thump or pound. 

Lead, like many other details, requires the exercise of 
mechanical skill and judgment, as, if a valve has too much 
lead, not only is there a great loss of power, but the piston 
receives a violent shock at each end of the stroke, and it 
will be found almost impossible to keep the packing tight 
around the piston-rod in consequence of the excessive 
cushioning. If the amount of lead be so great as to ad¬ 
mit steam of the full pressure to the passages and clear- 





190 HAND-BOOK OF MODERN STEAM FIRE-ENGINES. 

ance, the piston will have to force it back into the passages 
and chest, exposing the wrist- and crank-pins to a fearful 
shearing strain when the crank is at its weakest point — 
the fly-wheel travelling fast and the piston moving very 
slowlv. 

No general rule can be given for the amount of lead 
that would be best suited or most advantageous for all 
classes of engines, as that must be determined by the cir¬ 
cumstances of construction, speed, work, etc. 

In the case of vertical engines having the cylinder 
above and the crank below, it is customary to give less 
lead on the upper than on the lower port, as the wear in 
the valve connections has a tendency to increase the lead 
on the upper end. With vertical engines having the 
crank above and the cylinder below, these conditions are 
reversed. It is also customary in the case of horizontal 
engines to give more lead on the front than on the back 
end, in consequence of the reduced capacity of that end 
arising from the space occupied by the piston-rod. 

For stationary engines, the lead varies in general prac¬ 
tice from 3 ] 2 to t 3 q of an inch; the exhaust lead being in 
all cases double the amount of steam lead. The average 
amount of lead in full gear, for freight locomotives, is T L 
of an inch ; for locomotives running accommodation pas¬ 
senger trains, of an inch; and fast express locomotives, 
Y*q of an inch. 

FRICTION OF SLIDE-VALVES. 

All engineers agree that there is a great loss of power 
in working the slide-valve, but differ in the amount, from 
the fact that no correct data have been formed by which to 
make such calculations; but an idea has been very gener¬ 
ally entertained by engineers, that the number of square 


HAND-BOOK OF MODERN STEAM FIRE-ENGINES. 191 


inches in a slide-valve, and the pressure of steam in pounds 
per square inch, represented the total pressure on its hack, 
or that the pressure was equal to the pressure of steam 
per square inch on the back of a valve minus the area of 
the steam-ports. Such conclusions, however, are erroneous, 
as the number of square inches in a slide-valve, and the 
pounds pressure per square inch, would only represent the 
weight on its back, if we consider the valve as a solid block 
of iron with a smooth surface, resting on a smooth, solid 
bearing perfectly steam-tight, as then the steam would 
press on every square inch of surface with the same force 
as a dead weight laid upon it would. These conditions 
are never found in a slide-valve except in one position — 
that is, when the valve overlaps both ports, and the engine 
is at rest. As soon, however, as the valve is moved, the 
steam enters the open port, and the pressure is practically 
taken off that end of it. 

When the valve is moved back over the port, the steam 
that is shut up within the cylinder will press up against 
the under side of the valve-face with a force exactly equal 
to the pressure at that point in the stroke of the piston at 
which the valve closed. As the valve continues its stroke, 
the other port will be opened, and the steam that was 
shut up in the cylinder begins to exhaust; the pressure 
against the under side of the valve will be the same as 
that in the cylinder at the end of the stroke. This press¬ 
ure is only for a brief period, since in engines with well- 
proportioned steam-ports, the time occupied in exhausting 
the contents of the cylinder is very short. While the 
steam is entering the open port, and after the exhaust has 
passed through the closed port, the pressure on the under 
side of the valve will be just the ordinary back pressure. 
Therefore, in order to determine the pressure on a slide- 
valve, we must consider the pressure in the cylinder at 




192 HAND-BOOK OF MODERN STEAM FIRE-ENGINES. 

the time of cutting off the back pressure against the piston, 
the area of the ports, etc. 

Rulo for finding the Pressure on Slide-valves. —Mul¬ 
tiply the unbalanced area of the valve in inches by the 
pressure of steam in pounds per square inch ; add the 
weight of the valve in pounds, and multiply the sum by 
0.15. 

Another Rule. — Multiply the combined area of the 
bearing surface and ports in inches by the steam pressure 
in pounds per square inch on the back of the valve; mul¬ 
tiply this product by the coefficient of friction between the 
two surfaces. The product will be the force required to 
move the valve when unbalanced. 

BALANCED SLIDE-VALVES. 

The removal of the weight from the back of the valve 
would be a step in the right direction; while all engi¬ 
neers agree that the use of balanced slide-valves would be 
a great benefit, as they would not only materially diminish 
the wear of valve-gear, but utilize the power wasted in 
overcoming the friction. There are many forms .of the 
balance-valve that have rendered good service, but none 
of them have, so far, met all the requirements of a good 
steam-tight slide-valve. Still, as the difficulty does not 
seem to be insurmountable, it is more than probable that 
some new invention will be brought forward, or that some 
of the different forms of balanced-valves now in use will 
be so modified or improved as to accomplish the desired 
object. 

COMPRESSION. 

Compression is the term used to express the distance 
the piston moves in the cylinder after release or exhaust 


HAND-BOOK OF MODERN STEAM FIRE-ENGINES. 193 

has taken place, and the exhaust passage closed by the 
return-stroke of the valve, whereby the communication 
is cut off from the exhaust-port and that end of the cyl¬ 
inder. Compression takes place between the piston and 
cylinder-head at each end of the stroke, and the distance 
from the end of the cylinder at which it.takes place de¬ 
pends on the amount of lap on the valve. 

CLEARANCE. 

The term clearance is used to express the extent of the 
space which exists between the piston, the cylinder-head, 
and the valve-face at each end of the stroke. For each 
stroke of the piston, this space must be filled with steam, 
which in no way improves the action of the engine, but 
rather increases the amount of steam to be exhausted on 
the return-stroke. It is, therefore, an object of great im¬ 
portance, in point of economy, to have the valve-face as 
near the bore of the cylinder as possible, in order that the 
cubic contents of the space in the cylinder unoccupied by 
the piston and the steam passages may be reduced to their 
smallest * capacity. 

AUTOMATIC CUT-OFFS. 

Variable cut-off engines are engines having their steam- 
valves so controlled by the governor as to promptly cut 
off* the steam at any point from zero to half-stroke; the 
cut-off taking place earlier or later to accommodate the 
varied loads on the engine and the varied pressures in the 
boiler, — the object being to obtain full boiler pressure at 
the commencement of each stroke, and maintain it to the 
point of cut-off* leaving the balance of the stroke to be 
completed by expansion, — the speed of the engine being 
controlled by the cut-off, and not by throttling. 

17 N 






194 HAND-BOOK OF MODERN STEAM FIRE-ENGINES. 

Until quite recently, the common method of regulating 
the flow of steam from the boiler to the cylinder has been 
by the throttle-valve — a kind of “damper” — in the 
steam-pipe, which was turned as the speed of the engine 
increased, and choked off the supply of steam, — otherwise, 
the steam, in its .passage from the boiler to the cylinder, 
had to ooze through the contracted crevices of some pecu¬ 
liar type of governor-valve. An engine controlled by any 
such device is in a condition somewhat like that of a 
horse restrained by a brake applied to the wheels, and 
compelled to exert more strength than is necessary. These 
relics of barbarism are fast giving place to the system re¬ 
ferred to in the foregoing paragraph, which removes the 
brakes from the wheels and puts the bit in the horse’s 
mouth instead. 

Although all intelligent engineers are agreed upon the 
superior economy of the automatic cut-off engine, few — 
excepting those who have had the opportunity of making 
a practical comparison — are aware of the great saving in 
the expense of fuel, over that class of engines wherein the 
point of cut-off is invariably relative to stroke of piston. 
It is quite well understood, that the amount of work real¬ 
ized, as compared with the total theoretical work due the 
volume of steam expended, even in the most perfect en¬ 
gines, as shown on page 166, is a very small percentage of 
the whole energy; and it is, therefore, the more an object 
of interest to know precisely what the difference is between 
these two classes of engines in point of economy. 

E n engines with available expansion-gear controlled by 
the regulator, there is no impediment (save such as may 
occur at the port entrance) to the free flow of steam from 
the boiler to the cylinder; the regulation being effected, 
not by diminishing the pressure, but by cutting oft' in the 
cylinder the volume of steam necessary for each particu- 



HAND-BOOK OF MODERN STEAM FIRE-ENGINES. 195 

lar stroke; consequently, the only loss in pressure between 
the boiler and cylinder is that due to the length and num- 
her of the bends in the conducting-pipe. Whilst even in 
the best throttling engines, in consequence of the peculiar 
construction of the governor-valve and the tortuous pas¬ 
sages through which the steam is forced to travel, the 
pressure in the cylinder is, in a majority of cases, reduced 
from three-fourths to one-half that existing in the boiler; 
the evil effects of which are shown on page 153. 

It may seem strange that any intelligent engineer or 
steam-engine builder should deny the superiority of cut¬ 
off over throttling engines; and yet there are some who 
argue, that the economy in the use of the cut-off engine 
lies more in the representations than in the excellent per¬ 
formances,— which, of course, is an unpardonable error. 
In the opinion of the writer, the conditions of admission 
and suppression of steam to the cylinder insuring the 
highest grade of economy, are a full port with no inter¬ 
vening obstructions to impede the free flow of the steam, 
and a rapid movement of the cut-off or steam-valve over 
the port; as mere increase in the mean effective pressure, 
resulting from a tardy closing of the port, represents no 
gain during one stroke of the piston, that may be stored 
up and expended during the succeeding stroke; hence, 
any force upon the piston in excess of that required 
to balance the resistance, will result in a diminished 

economy. 

* 

The economy of a high-pressure steam-engine is exactly 
in proportion as its average piston pressure is higher than 
its pressure when it exhausts, provided the pressure does 
not fall below that of the atmosphere; the highest economy 
being attained when the stroke is commenced with full 
boiler pressure, and the steam quickly and completely cut 
off at a point in the stroke that allows the pressure to fall 







196 HAND-BOOK OF MODERN STEAM FIRE-ENGINES. 

to or very near that of the atmosphere; the lull boiler 
pressure to be maintained from commencement of stroke 
to the point of cut-off. 

SETTING VALVES. 

It may seem strange that any person claiming to be an 
engineer should be found ujiable to properly set the valves 
of a steam-engine; and yet it is a fact, that there are 
thousands of persons having charge of engines, who are 
unfit, by want of practical knowledge, to do so correctly. 
This may arise from the fact that in none of the works 
heretofore written on the steam-engine, does there appear 
to be any accurate method laid down for the proper setting 
of valves; an omission which it is difficult to account for, 
as it must be admitted that the setting of the valves of 
steam-engines is among the most important duties which 
the engineer has to perform, involving, as it does, nicety 
of calculation and mechanical accuracy. 

A slide-valve may be properly designed and constructed, 
and yet be unable to perform any of its proper functions, 
in consequence of being improperly set, as the steam may 
be admitted too soon or too late, and the exhaust fail to 
open and close at the right time, in consequence of which 
the useful effect of the steam is lost and the power of the 
engine diminished. 

HOW TO SET A SLIDE-VALVE. 

Place the crank at 180°, or dead-centre, and the eccen¬ 
tric at 90°, or at right angles with the crank; now adjust 
the eccentric-rod so that the rocker will stand in a perpen¬ 
dicular position; next place the valve centrally over the 
ports as shown in Fig. 1, and get it equally divided on the 











HAND-BOOK OF MODERN STEAM FIRE-ENGINES. 197 


rod, so that with the motion of the engine, when all is con¬ 
nected, the valve will travel equally to either extremes 
from its central position. Then turn the eccentric forward 
on the shaft, in the direction in which the engine is intended 
to run, until the valve shows the steam-port just beginning 




to open, as in Fig. 2. If more lead be required, move the 
eccentric farther ahead, until the valve opens the port to 
the amount, of lead required, when it will be found that, 
if the valve and ports have been laid out according to 
the proportions on page 155, the engine will work well. 




If lap be necessary, it will have to be added to the length 
of the valve, by either piecing the valve out at each end, 
or making a new one. 

All valves of steam-engines, whether slide, conical, or 
vibratory, are set in precisely the same way, as the crank 
must occupy the same position when the steam- and ex¬ 
haust-valves commence to open, regardless of the design 
or construction of the engine or valves. 

17* 

































198 HAND-BOOK OF MODERN STEAM FIRE-ENGINES. 

To set poppet or conical valves, it is only necessary to 
place the crank on the dead-centre, and move the cams on 
the cam-bar, until the steam- and exhaust-valves have the 
necessary amount of lead — the throw of the cams to give 
the required lift of the valves being previously determined, 
and the movements of the cam-bar, the lifts of the valves, 
the speed, etc., being influenced by the action of the gov¬ 
ernor in stationary engines. But it must be understood 
that every different valve requires a different setting: a 
change of speed will necessitate a change in the position 
of the valve; if the throw of the valve be altered, its lead 
must also be altered. 

One of the best helps to correct valve-setting is a good 
indicator, as there is nothing known which shows the ac¬ 
tion of the steam in the cylinder so correctly as this in¬ 
strument. It tells exactly where the steam goes in and 
out of a cylinder, because it maps down the motions of the 
steam as determined by the motions of the valve and pis¬ 
ton, recording faithfully the times and the pressures as 
they actually are, which may be very different from pre¬ 
sumed times and pressures as shown by the mechanical 
movements of the valve and gear. 

The valves of all engines (particularly those subjected 
to high temperatures, such as portable or fire engines, or, in 
fact, all engines attached to boilers), should be set when all 
the parts are warmed up to or nearly to the working tem¬ 
perature, as, if valves are set when all the connections are 
cold, in consequence of the expansion they undergo when 
exposed to high temperatures, they are liable to travel 
unequally on their seats or give unequal openings. All 
corrections shown by the indicator necessary to be made 
in the motion of valves, should be made while the parts 
are warm. 








HAND-BOOK OF MODERN STEAM FIRE-ENGINES. 199 


SETTING OUT PISTON PACKING. 

One of the most important duties an engineer has to 
perform, is that of the setting out of piston packing; and 
as, like valve-setting and many other details of the steam- 
engine, no general instructions can be given for its adjust¬ 
ment, a good deal depends on the capability and intelli¬ 
gence of the engineer. 

The first thing to be done, in order to properly adjust 
the packing, is to see that the piston is exactly in the 
centre of the cylinder. This can be ascertained by meas¬ 
uring, with a pair of inside calipers, from the centre of 
the piston to the inside of the cylinder at four different 
points. To insure accuracy, calipers with a long and a 
short leg are generally used—the short leg being inserted 
in the centre of the piston-head and the circle of the 
cylinder inscribed with the long one, which will show pre¬ 
cisely the position of the piston in the cylinder. The 
rings should then be set out sufficiently tight to form a 
steam-tight joint with the inside of the cylinder, and no 
more. If the cylinder is true and in good condition, the 
springs of the proper tension, and the rings well propor¬ 
tioned and fitted, there is no reason why the piston should 
leak. 

Whether the piston is leaky or not can be ascertained 
by removing the back-head of the cylinder and admitting 
steam to the other end. To make such a trial, the crank 
should be placed on the dead-centre and also at half¬ 
stroke, as many pistons perfectly steam-tight at either end 
would leak when at half-stroke, in consequence of the 
cylinder being worn larger in the middle than at the ends. 

Brass or composition rings should be adjusted while the 
cylinder is warm, as, if set out when cold, in consequence 
of their great limit of expansion when heated, they become 






200 HAND-BOOK OF MODERN STEAM FIRE-ENGINES. 

too tight, and generate a great amount of friction. In 
many instances, where engines fail to develop the neces¬ 
sary amount of power, it is attributed to the leaky condi¬ 
tion of the piston; and, as a remedy, the rings are set out 
to such an extent that, instead of the power of the engine 
being increased, it is materially diminished, thus aggra¬ 
vating the evil that was sought to be removed. 

HOW TO REVERSE AN ENGINE. 

Place the crank on the dead-centre, and remove the 
bonnet of the steam-chest; observe the amount of lead 
or opening that the valve has on the steam end; then 
loosen the eccentric, and turn it round on the shaft, in the 
direction in which it is intended the engine should run, 
until the valve has the same amount of lead on the other 
end. To determine whether the lead is exactly the same 
at both ends, a small piece of pine wood may be tapered 
in the shape of a wedge, and inserted in the port; the 
marks left on it by the edge of the port and the lip of 
the valve will show how far it has entered. The engine 
should then be turned on the other centre, for the pur¬ 
pose of equalizing the lead ; the crank should also be 
placed at half-stroke, top and bottom, for the purpose of 
determining whether the port-opening is the same in both 
positions. When the crank is at half-stroke, the centre 
of the crank-pin is plumb with the centre of the crank¬ 
shaft. 


DEAD-CENTRE. 

A difficulty is often experienced in finding what is called 
the “ dead-centre,” or the position of the crank correspond¬ 
ing to the end of the stroke, which an experienced engi¬ 
neer can, in a majority of cases, tell by his eye; yet in others, 


HAND-BOOK OF MODERN STEAM FIRE-ENGINES. 


201 


in coDsequence of peculiarity of design and complication 
of parts, he finds it very difficult. A very accurate method 
of finding the dead-centre in horizontal engines, is to place 
a spirit-level on the top or bottom of the strap of the con¬ 
necting-rod, and move the crank up or down until the centre 
is found. Or, if this should be found inconvenient or im¬ 
practicable, a circle may be described with a pair of di¬ 
viders on the centre of the crank-shaft equal in diameter 
to the shoulder of the crank-pin; then place the spirit- 
level parallel with the shoulder of the crank-pin and the 
outer edge of the circle; then by moving the crank up or 
down, as the case may require, the centre can be accu¬ 
rately found. The centres of vertical and beam engines 
can be found by means of a plumb-line. 

HOW TO PUT AN ENGINE IN LINE. 

An engine is in line when the axis of the cylinder and 
the axis of the piston-rod in all positions are in one and 
the same straight line. This line extended should inter¬ 
sect the axis of the engine-shaft, and be at right angles to 
it. The guides should also be parallel thereto. The axis 
of the shaft must be level, but the centre line of the cylinder 
may be level, inclined, or vertical, according to the kind 
of engine. 

Take off the cylinder-heads and remove the piston-rod, 
cross-head, and connecting-rod ; then extend a fine line, as 
nearly as may be by the ordinary means of measurement, 
through the centre of the cylinder, and let it pass beyond 
the crank-pin when at outer centre; also let it extend out¬ 
side the rear end of the cylinder, and firmly secure each 
end to some fixed object at these extreme points. Stretch 
this line as tightly as it will bear without breaking, and 
then begin to get it in exact central position by rod meas¬ 
urement. 








202 HAND-BOOK OF MODERN STEAM FIRE-ENGINES. 

Mark four points with a centre-punch at equal distances 
from each other around the bore of the cylinder, say, top 
and bottom and on each side at each end, and then, by a 
trial with a small pointed piece of hard wood, or wire, set 
the line so that, when one end of the wire rests on each of 
the four points successively, the other end will just feel the 
line; next see where this line passes the centre of the 
shaft. If they coincide, then the cylinder is in line with 
the shaft; if not, they must be put in line with each other. 
It is often difficult to move cylinders and shafts, and as 
one or the other must be removed, in some cases both, only 
skill and judgment can decide which to do and how to do 
it. No special directions can be given how to move the cyl¬ 
inder and shaft into line with each other, because engines 
are so differently constructed ; but trusting to the skill of 
the engineer to secure these two points, the next thing to 
do is to set the shaft at right angles to the line, and to 
make it level, also. To do this, turn the shaft until the 
crank-pin almost touches the line; then find, by a rod or 
inside calipers, if the line lies evenly between the two col¬ 
lars of the pin ; if not, note the distance from either one, 
then turn the shaft until the pin almost touches the line 
on the other side, and apply the measure to corresponding 
places on the collars of the pin. The difference in the 
measure, if any, will show which way the end of the shaft 
must be moved to make these measures equal. 

The exchanging of the crank-pin from side to side may 
have to be repeated several times and remeasured, and the 
shaft moved, before these measures can be made equal. 
The shaft may require moving endwise in order to get the 
line to lie evenly between the two collars; but when the 
turning of the shaft half round brings both collars of the 
pin the same distance from the line, the shaft is then at 
right angles to the centre line of the cylinder. 





HAND-BOOK OF MODERN STEAM FIRE-ENGINES. 


203 


In order to level the shaft by the same method, drop a 
plumb-line, passing by the centre of the shaft and by the 
centre line of the cylinder also; then by turning the pin 
up and down to the near touching-points of the plumb-line, 
and raising or lowering the outer end of the shaft until the 
collar on the pin is the same distance from the plumb-line 
in both positions, the shaft may be said to be level, or,- 
which is the same thing, it is made at right angles to a 
plumb-line. It remains now to bring the guides into line 
with the cylinder ; this may be done by direct measurement 
from each end of each guide (if there are two) to the line, 
moving them until they are parallel to the line and to one 
another. A spirit-level may be placed on their top faces 
to show how to adjust them to the horizontal; if no level is 
at hand, then a true square and plumb-line may be used; 
and if not, straight-edges placed across the guides, and 
measurements made down to the centre line, will determine 
the line of them. 

PROPORTIONS OF STEAM-ENGINES ACCORDING TO 
THE BEST MODERN PRACTICE. 

Before any correct formulae, by which to determine the 
proper proportions for steam-engines, can be deduced, there 
are many things to be considered ; permanent load, weight 
of moving material, nature of motion, etc. 

The load on the piston-rod consists of the piston at 
one end and the cross-head at the other; consequently, the 
greater the length between these two points, the more the 
rod is affected. For this reason, it is obvious that, when 
it becomes necessary to fix the area of the piston-rod, the 
pressure, area of cylinder, load, and length of travel must 
be duly considered. 

The connecting-rod being hung between a sliding and 




204 HAND-BOOK OF MODERN STEAM FIRE-ENGINES. 

a rotatory motion, the load is in some measure due to the 
length of the rod in proportion to the circle described. 
In the first case, the sliding point has a load on it due to 
the weight of the piston-rod beyond the stuffing-box, with 
the additional weight of the cross-head ; in the second 
instance, the rotating surface is affected by the weight of 
the rod and the weight of the crank. 

To determine the diameter of the crank-shaft, we must 
take into account the length of the crank as a lever, and 
the pressure of steam as the weight on the end of the same. 
The proportions of the crank-pin are likewise modified 
according to pressure, permanent load, length of stroke, 
shearing strain, etc. 

The thickness of a steam-cylinder may be found by 
the following rule.—Divide the diameter of the cylinder 
plus 2 by 16, and deduct a Yoo P art °f the diameter from 
the quotient, the remainder will be the proper thickness. 

The depth of the piston-rings should equal J the diam¬ 
eter of the cylinder. 

The thickness of the follower-plate should be the same 
as that of the cylinder. 

The whole thickness of the piston will therefore be | 
the diameter of the, cylinder plus twice its thickness ob¬ 
tained by the rule above. 

The diameter of the piston-rod should be from J to J 
that of the cylinder for high-pressure engines, and 4 for 
condensing engines. 

The diameter of the crank-shaft may be about y 4 ^ that 
of the cylinder if of wrought-iron, or f ^ if of cast-iron; 
but it should be of wrought-iron if extra strength be 
required. 

The length of the crank-shaft bearing should be equal 
to 1^ times its diameter, and in some cases it should be 
twice. 


HAND-BOOK OF MODERN STEAM FIRE-ENGINES. 205 

The diameter of the crank-pin should be from .2 to .25 
that of the cylinder. Its length should be from .275 to 
.35 the diameter of the cylinder. 

The diameter of the wrist- or cross-head pin should be 
equal to that of the crank-pin, and its length the same. 

The diameter of the connecting-rod, in the neck, should 
equal that of the piston-rod, and should increase ] inch 
in diameter, to the foot, from the neck to the middle. 

The diameter of the eccentric-rod in the neck should 
be 1| times the diameter of the valve-rod, and should in¬ 
crease | inch in diameter to the foot of the-eccentric. 

The diameter of the valve-rod should be from to ^ 
that of the cylinder. 

The diameter of the boss of the crank, if cast-iron, 
should equal twice that of the shaft-journal. Its depth 
should equal the diameter of the shaft-journal multiplied 
by 7. 

The diameter of the crank at the pin should equal twice 
the diameter of the pin, and its depth at the pin should 
equal the diameter of the pin multiplied by 12. 

The thickness of the web of the crank should equal 
three times the diameter of the shaft-journal. 

The boss of the crank, if of wrought-iron, should equal 
the diameter of the shaft-journal or the pin multiplied 
by 4. 

The thickness of the crank should equal the diameter 
of the shaft-journal multiplied by 6. 

The area of the crank at the centre should equal that 
of the shaft. 

The thickness of the straps should be equal to .44 of 
the diameter of the pins; but for engines requiring great 
strength, they ought to be h the diameter of the pins. 

The breadth of the strap should equal 1.1 times the 
diameter of the pin plus Jg. 

18 







206 HAND-BOOK OF MODERN STEAM FIRE-ENGINES. 

The distance from the slot to the end of the strap should 
equal .06 of the diameter of the pin. 

The breadth of the gib and key should equal 1.1 times 
the diameter of the pin; the thickness should equal .3 
that diameter; the clearance should equal 1 the diameter 
of the pin plus 2 divided by 16; the distance from the 
key-slot to the end of the block should equal .44, the 
diameter of the pin. 

The diameter of the steam-pipe should be the same as 
that of the crank-pin, or from .2 to .25, the diameter of the 
cylinder. 

The diameter of the exhaust-pipe should be from .25 to 
.3, the diameter of the cylinder. 

The length of the cross-head bearings should be equal 
to | the diameter of the cylinder, and their breadth to ^ 
of the same. 

The diameter and length of the rock-shaft bearing, if 
subjected to torsion strain, should be from ^ to J the 
diameter of the engine-shaft; if not subjected to torsion, 
\ the diameter of the engine-shaft will be sufficient. 

The diameter of the rock-shaft pin should not be less 
than that of the valve-stem ; and if an overhanging pin, it 
should be from 1£ to 1$ times the diameter of the valve- 
stem. 

In order to make the proportions more plain, it may 

be advisable to introduce an example ; say, for instance, an 
engine with a cylinder 12 inches in diameter and 30 inches 
stroke. Thickness of cylinder, f inch ; depth of piston¬ 
ring, 3 inches; diameter of piston-rod, ljj inches; diam¬ 
eter of crank-shaft, if of wrought-iron, 4.8 to 5 inches, if 
of cast-iron, 8 to 8-1 inches; length of bearing, 71 inches; 
diameter of crank-pin, 2.4 to 3 inches; length of crank- 
pin, 3.3 to 4 inches; diameter of connecting-rod in the 
neck, lyl inches; diameter of eccentric-rod, 1{ inches; 


HAND-BOOK OF MODERN STEAM FIRE-ENGINES. 20 / 


diameter of valve-rod, 1 inch; diameter of wrist-pin, 2.4 
to 3 inches; length of wrist-pin from 3.3 to 4 inches; 
thickness of sub-straps, If inches; breadth of straps, 3| 
inches; distance from slot to end, 1.8 ; breadth of gib and 
key, 3J inches; thickness of gib and key, J inch; clear¬ 
ance, 2 inches to .218 inch; from key-slot to end of block, 
1| inches; area of steam-port, inches; length of port, 
7.2 inches; width, 1 inch; width of exhaust-port, 1^ 
inches; diameter of steam-pipe, 3 inches; diameter of 
exhaust-pipe, 3^ inches. 

TABLE 

SHOWING THE PROPER THICKNESS FOR STEAM-CYLINDERS OF 

DIFFERENT DIAMETERS. 


Diam. of 
Cylinder. 

Thickness. 

Diam. of 
Cylinder. 

Thickness. 

6 inch. 

5 

8" 

inch. 

14 inch. 

1 inch. 

8 “ 

1 1 

1 6 

U 

15 

U 

ii « 

9 “ 

3 

~i 

a 

17 

u 

ii “ 
x 8 

10 “ 

H 

a 

18 

« 

13 

A T^ 

11 “ 

1 

u 

19 

u 

1 1 “ 

12 “ 

I 5 
T<> 

u 

21 

u 

13 « 

1 8 


The foregoing thicknesses include the proper allowance 
for reboring. But when the speed of the piston is intended 
to exceed 300 feet per minute, Jg of an inch should be 
added per 100 feet to the thickness given. 

The following table, however, is more in accordance 
with modern practice. 


Diam. of 
Cylinder. 

Thickness. 

Diam. of 
Cylinder. 

Thickness. 

6 in. 

.440 

20 in. 

1.175 

8 “ 

.545 

22 “ 

1.280 

10 “ 

.650 

24 “ 

1.385 

12 “ 

.755 

26 “ 

1.490 

14 “ 

.860 

28 “ 

1.595 

10 “ 

.965 

30 “ 

1.700 

18 “ 

1.070 













































208 HAND-BOOK OF MODERN STEAM FIRE-ENGINES. 

Rule for finding the required Diameter of Cylinder for an 
Engine of any given Horse-power , the Travel of Piston and 
available Pressure being decided upon. — Multiply 33,000 by 
the number of horse-power; multiply the travel of piston 
in feet per minute by the available pressure in the cylin¬ 
der. Divide the first product by the second; divide the 
quotient by the decimal .7854. The square root of the 
last quotient will be the required diameter of cylinder. 

THE INVENTION AND IMPROVEMENT OF THE 

STEAM-ENGINE. 

« 

A Machine receiving at distant times and from many 
hands new combinations and improvements, and becoming 
at last of signal benefit to mankind, may be compared to 
a rivulet, swelled in its course by tributary streams, until 
it rolls along, a majestic river, enriching in its progress 
states and provinces. In retracing the current from where 
it mingles with the ocean, the pretensions of even ample 
subsidiary streams are merged in our admiration of the 
master flood, glorying, as it were, in its expansion. But 
as we continue to ascend, those waters, which nearer the 
sea would have been disregarded as unimportant, begin to 
rival in magnitude, and divide attention with the parent 
stream, until at length, on approaching the fountains of 
the river, it appears trickling from the rock, or oozing 
from among the flowers of the valley. 

So also in developing the rise of a machine, a coarse 
instrument or a toy may be recognized as the germ of 
that production of mechanical genius whose power and 
usefulness have stimulated our curiosity to mark its 
changes and to trace its origin. The same feeling of grati¬ 
tude which attached reverence to the place from whence 
mighty rivers have sprung, also clothed it, as it were, with 


HAND-BOOK OF MODERN STEAM FIRE-ENGINES. 209 


divinity, and raised altars in honor of the inventors of 
the saw, the plough, and the loom. To those who are 
familiar with modern machinery, the construction of these 
implements may appear to have conferred but slight claim 
to the respect in which their authors were held in ancient 
times. Yet, artless as they seem, their use first raised man 
above the beasts of the field, by incalculably diminishing 
the sum of human labor. 

From the important and increasing influence of the 
steam-engine on human affairs, controversies have fre¬ 
quently arisen between writers of different nations respect¬ 
ing the claims of their countrymen to its invention. But 
the steam-engine cannot be said to be the invention of any 
one man or belong to any nationality, but to be a com¬ 
bination of the scattered devices of a number of ingenious 
men, whose fortune it was more frequently to fail than to 
succeed, but who did not consider such failures a good 
reason for abandoning their cherished objects, or allowing 
them to fall into oblivion, being aware that practice is 
progressive, and that the mechanical difficulties which 
so much embarrassed them would be removed as they 
advanced towards greater perfection, and that the schemes 
that had failed, as well as those that were doubtful, should 
be considered as seeds drifting on a common field which 
some random step would fix in the soil and quicken into 
life. 

It also not unfrequently happened that some of those 
discoveries that conferred such benefits on mankind were 
the result of mere accident, and that, while in the pursuit 
of some peculiar objects, others of greater importance 
were often unfolded. Such was the case of the steam- 
engine, as it was only the raising of water directly by fire 
that exercised the ingenuity of Worcester, Moreland, Papin, 
Savery, and Newcomen. But their labors resulted in the 
18* O 






















210 HAND-BOOK OF MODERN STEAM FIRE-ENGINES. 

production of the most important and valuable machine 
that the arts have ever presented to man — the steam- 
engine. 

The earliest records extant of a machine producing use¬ 
ful effect by the vapor of boiling water, is the Eolipile of 
Heron, of Alexandria, who lived about 280 years B. C., 
and which may be said to be the “germ” of the modern 
steam-engine. The Eolipile was a hollow globe resting on 
legs, which, being filled with water and placed over a fire, 
allowed the increasing steam to escape through a small 
orifice at the top, which had the effect of producing a 
draught similar to that of the blower-pipe in the chimney 
of a locomotive. The Eolipile was very extensively used 
in Egypt for blowing fires, increasing draught in chimneys, 
diffusing perfumes, for idol worship, etc. 

In 1543, Blasco de Garay, a Spaniard, is said to have 
constructed a steamboat of 200 tons, in the harbor of Bar¬ 
celona, Spain, and used steam as a motive power for its 
propulsion. From this it was claimed that the steam- 
engine was invented in Spain, and that Blasco de Garay 
should be regarded as the inventor. But as the nature 
and construction of his engine are not mentioned in the 
claim, we are left to form our own opinion. The proba¬ 
bilities are that De Garay used a machine constructed on 
the same principle as Savery’s, Papin’s, or Leopold’s, to 
raise water upon an overshot-wheel fixed on the same axle 
as the paddles. De Garay is also claimed to be the in¬ 
ventor of the paddle-wheel, which is evidently a mistake, 
as the same honor was claimed by Papin, Savery, Jouffroy, 
Symington, and a host of others. In fact, the principle 
of the paddle-wheel is equally as old as the wind-mill. 

In 1630, B ranca, an Italian, is claimed to have invented 
a machine which produced useful effect by the elastic force 
of steam. But from the most reliable accounts, Branca’s 


HAND-BOOK OF MODERN STEAM FIRE-ENGINES. 211 

machine was constructed on the same principle as the 
“ breast ” water-wheel, and received its motion from steam 
issuing from an orifice in a vessel similar to the Eolipile. 

In 1663, the Marquis of Worcester is said to have con¬ 
structed an engine by which motion was given to a piston 
by means of steam. But the account of his invention is 
so ambiguous, as to lead to the belief that his machine was 
similar to those of Papin and Savery, which could not be 
said to belong to the same class as the modern steam- 
engine, nor could their inventors claim to have contributed 
anything to the invention of the latter, except to make 
their contemporaries more familiar with the mechanical 
properties of steam, as their ideas seem to have been 
wholly confined to the raising of water in the most direct 
manner. There is no evidence to show that either Papin 
or Savery ever thought of a piston. 

In 1710, Newcomen made the first steam-engine in 
England that could be said to be worthy of the name. 
To Newcomen belongs the honor of not only laying the 
foundation of the modern steam-engine, but also of attract¬ 
ing the attention of ingenious men to its improvement. 
Newcomen was also claimed to be the discoverer of the 
principle of condensation ; but this is evidently a mistake, 
as the alchemists were familiar with the formation of a 
vacuum by the condensation of steam, and with raising 
water into it by atmospheric pressure, long before New¬ 
comen’s time. 

In 1720, Leopold and Trevithick invented their high- 
pressure engine, which was greatly admired, though useless 
and impracticable, since, when the steam raised the piston 
to the upper end of the cylinder, it would remain there, as 
there was no counter-pressure to cause it to descend. But 
the engines of Newcomen and Leopold, with all their 
imperfections, were the connecting links between the 







212 HAND BOOK OF MODERN STEA$1 FIRE-ENGINES. 

machines of Heron, De Garay, Papin, and Savery and the 
engines of Watt, Fitch, and Oliver Evans, as they opened 
the way for the introduction of the crank- and the fly¬ 
wheel, which changed completely the character of the old 
engines. 

In 1764, James Watt made the first engine in England 
that bore anv resemblance to steam-engines of the modern 
type ; and in 1786, he patented and made public his great 
improvements, among which was separate condensation — 
to realize the importance of which requires careful study 
and thorough mechanical knowledge even at this late day. 
When we consider that to him all was comparatively 
novel, we pause in astonishment at the stupendous results 
of his invention ; and yet it was eight years before he 
succeeded in getting any one to try it, and had not a for¬ 
tunate chance at that period introduced him to a liberal, 
enlightened, and enterprising man in Boulton, another 
eight years of fruitless efforts might probably have been 
undergone, or even the full appreciation of the invention 
indefinitely delayed, in which case the whole of that 
vast career of progress on which the human race entered 
as a consequence of the discovery of the steam-engine 
would have been postponed. 

In 1787, John Fitch, of Connecticut, with the aid of a 
common blacksmith, built in Philadelphia the first con- 
densing-engine ever heard of on this continent, and this 
without any knowledge of Watt’s improvements in con- 
densing-engines, as it was in the previous year that the 
latter patented and made them public — consequently, 
there is every reason to believe that John Fitch was en¬ 
tirely ignorant of them. 

In 1793, Oliver Evans, a native of Philadelphia, invented 
the high-pressure engine ; and to him must be awarded the 
credit of having built, and put in operation, the first 


HAND-BOOK OF .MODERN STEAM FIRE-ENGINES. 213 

practically useful high-pressure steam-engine. The high- 
pressure engine of Oliver Evans had immense advantages, 
in cheapness and simplicity, over the more expensive 
and complicated condensing-engiue of Watt; and ever 
since the days of Oliver Evans, the high-pressure engine 
has continued to be the standard steam-engine for land 
purposes wherever steam has been introduced as a motive- 
power. England, ever true and grateful to her own 
genius, has fitly honored her greatest inventor, Watt; 
while America has suffered the genius of Oliver Evans, 
Jyhn Fitch, and Robert Fulton to die unrewarded in life, 
and forgotten in the grave, though she has not forgotten 
to profit by their inventions. 

In 1807, Robert Fulton, a man whom we should never 
forget to honor, established the success of steam naviga¬ 
tion. He was also the first to apply the paddle-wheel, in 
its present form, to the propulsion of vessels, and to intro¬ 
duce steam ferry-boats in this country. 

It is quite interesting to follow the various improve¬ 
ments that have been made upon the steam-engine at dif¬ 
ferent times, and to see how it has been brought to its 
present form. The cylinder and piston were used for 
raising water long before the advent of the steam-engine; 
and in the early forms of the latter, one end of the cylin¬ 
der was open to the atmosphere, while the piston was 
nothing more than a flat wooden float, connected with a 
beam and sector by means of a rod and chain. But in 
1776, Blakey made the piston steam-tight by means of a 
stratum of hemp saturated with grease, for which he 
obtained a patent. 

In 1804, Oliver Evans made the cylinder a steam-tight 
vessel, and introduced steam alternately above and below 
the piston. In this arrangement lay the vital energy of 
the steam-engine, as all the other parts are but appendages 






214 HAND-BOOK OF MODERN STEAM FIRE-ENGINES. 

to the cylinder and piston. They may he removed, and 
the energy of the machine still remains; but take away 
either cylinder or piston, and the whole becomes as inert 
as the limbs of an animal whose heart has ceased to beat. 
The metallic piston-packing, now so universally used, was 
invented by Aiken in 1836, and the stuffing-box, by La 
Hire, in 1716. 

Murdock was claimed to be the inventor of the crank, 
but the same device had been used in the common foot- 
lathe centuries before. After many years of experiment, 
it was finally adopted by Pickard; after which Watt 
patented a much more complicated method of convert¬ 
ing reciprocating into rotary motion, which was called 
the sun and planet motion, but it went out of use after 
repeated trials with the crank. 

In the first steam-engines, the admission of the steam 
to the cylinder was regulated by means of a stop-cock, 
which required constant attention, as it had to be opened 
and closed at each stroke of the piston ; but a boy, named 
Potter, employed in this service, stimulated by the love 
of play, ingeniously added cords to the levers by which 
the cocks were turned, and, connecting the other ends of 
the cords to the working-beam, rendered the machine 
self-acting. Beighton afterwards substituted iron rods. 

The parallel rods, now so universally superseded by the 
guides, were invented by Watt in 1790. He was also the 
inventor of the condenser, and the first to attach an air- 
pump to the steam-engine, though the latter device was 
used for other purposes previous to Watt’s time. Watt 
was also the inventor of the governor; but that indispen¬ 
sable adjunct of the steam-engine remained very imperfect 
down to 1848, when George Corliss invented and con¬ 
structed the first steam-engine governor that could be said 
to be worthy of the name. 


HAND-BOOK OF MODERN STEAM FIRE-ENGINES. 


215 


The slide-valve was invented by Murray, in 1810. In 
1832, R. L. Stevens invented the poppet-valve. In 1841, 
he invented the Stevens’ cut-off valve-gear, which is still 
used on a large number of marine engines. He was also 
the‘inventor of the now universally known American 
skeleton walking-beam, with cast-iron centre and forged 
straps. 

In 1848, the automatic cut-off, which has almost uni¬ 
versally superseded that relic of barbarism, the throttle- 
valve, was invented by George Corliss. The combination 
of the foregoing devices has made up the modern steam- 
engine — the great prime mover of man. And, strange 
as it may seem, nearly all the important improvements in 
the steam-engine have been achieved by men of other 
callings than that of engineers, which goes to strengthen 
the often repeated assertion, that where it is possible to 
make any improvement in a machine, it would be more 
likely to be discovered by men of natural genius, untram¬ 
melled by the routine of any special trade, than by men 
who, from force of habit, become unreasoning creatures. 

While the merit of the discovery of the expansive 
properties of steam is due to Hornblower, who obtained 
a patent for his invention in 1781, the honor of first 
working it expansively belongs to Robert L. Stevens, as he 
invented the cut-off valve in 1813; and there does not 
appear to be any evidence that steam was worked expan¬ 
sively in England previous to that time. Thus it will be 
seen that most of the great improvements made in the 
steam-engine, more particularly the high-pressure engine, 
were the results of American genius; and that America 
has produced a class of engineers who, in spite of many 
difficulties, have produced effects wonderful even to them- 
sel ves. 

Although Archimedes was the inventor, or at least the 








210 HAND-BOOK OF MODERN STEAM FIRE-ENGINES. 


alleged inventor, of the screw, Col. John Stevens, an 
American, was the first to adapt it to the purposes of the 
propulsion of vessels, in 1804. He was also the inventor 
of the tubular boiler. 

The spring-gauge, that invaluable attachment of the 
steam-boiler, is also an American invention, and with the 
exception of the Bourdon (French) and Schaeffer (Prus¬ 
sian), all the spring-gauges in use in the United States, 
some thirty in number, are American inventions. 


SIGNIFICATION OF SIGNS USED IN CALCULATIONS. 


= signifies Equality, 

+ 


X 


v' 

V 

3 2 

3 3 


Addition, 

Subtraction, 

Multiplication, 

Division, 

Proportion, 

Square Root, 

Cube Root, 

3 is to be squared, 


as 3 added to 2 = 5. 
4+2 = 6. 

7 — 4 = 3. 

6x2=12. 

16 4 = 4. 

2 is to 3, so is 4 to 6. 
v/16 = 4. 
v/64 = 4. 

3 2 = 9. 

3 3 = 27. 


u 


u 


u 


u 


u 


u 


u 


u 


u 


v/5 2 — 3 2 


3 is to be cubed, 

2 + 5 x 4 = 28 signifies that two, three, or more num¬ 
bers are to be taken together, as 2 + 5 
= 7, and 4 times 7 = 28. 

4 signifies that 3 squared is taken from 5 
squared, and the square root of the dif¬ 
ference = 4. 

3 X 6 = 1.587 signifies that where 10 is multiplied 
15 by 6 and divided by 15, the cube root 

of the quotient = 1.587. 


</ 







HAND-BOOK OF MODERN STEAM FIRE-ENGINES. 


217 


DECIMALS. 

Decimal Arithmetic is of Hindoo origin, and was intro¬ 
duced into Arabia about one thousand years ago, from 
whence it was diffused throughout Europe and the entire 
civilized world. The base, 10, originated from the ten 
fingers, which were used for counting before characters were 
formed to denote numbers. The base, 10, admits of only 
one binary division, which gives the prime number 5 
without fraction. The trinary divisions give an endless 
number of decimals. 

Decimal Fractions are fractions in which the denomi¬ 
nator is a unit, or 1 with ciphers annexed, in which case 
they are commonly expressed by writing the numerator 
only with a point before it, by which it is separated from 
whole numbers; thus, .5, which denotes five-tenths, t 5 q 
. 25, that is, 


DECIMAL EQUIVALENTS OF INCHES, FEET, AND 

YARDS. 


Fractions of Decimals of Decimals of 


an Inch. 

an Inch. 


a Foot. 


_ 

.0625 

— 

.00521 


— 

.125 

— 

.01041 

— 

.1875 


.01562 

I 

— 

.25 

— 

.02083 

— 

.3125 

— 

.02604 

3 

8 

— 

.375 


.03125 

— 

.4375 

— 

.03645 

1 

— 

.5 

— 

.04166 


— 

.5625 

— 

.04688 

1 

— 

.625 

— 

.05208 

— 

.6875 

— 

.05729 

3 . 

4 

— 

.75 

— 

.06250 


_ 

.8125 

— 

.06771 

7 

IT 

— 

.875 

■ 

.07291 


— 

.9375 


.07812 

1 inch 

— 

1.00 


.08333 


19 


Inch. 

Feet. 


Yards. 

1 

— 

.0833 

— 

.0277 

2 

— 

.1666 

— 

.0555 

3 


.25 

— 

.0833 

4 

— 

.3333 

— 

.1111 

5 

— 

.4166 

— 

.1389 

6 

— 

.5 

— 

.1666 

7 

— 

.5833 

— 

.1944 

8 

— 

.6666 

— 

.2222. 

9 

— 

.75 

— 

.25 

10 

— 

.8333 

— 

.2778 

11 

— 

.9166 


.3055 

12 


1.000 

— 

.3333 











218 HAND-BOOK OF MODERN STEAM FIRE-ENGINES. 


DECIMAL EQUIVALENTS OF POUNDS AND OUNCES. 


Oz. 

Lbs. 

Oz. 

Lbs. 

Oz. 

Lbs. 

Oz. 

Lbs. 

Oz. 

Lbs. 

i 

.015625 

3 

.1875 

64 

.40625 

10 

.625 

13* 

.84375 

I 

.03125 

34 

.21875 

7 

.4375 

104 

.65625 

14 

.875 

1 

4 

.046875 

4 

.25 

74 

.46875 

11 

.6875 

144 

.90625 

1 

.0625 

44 

.28125 

8 

.5 

1H 

.71875 

15 

.9375 

14 

.09375 

5 

.3125 

84 

.53125 

12 

.75 

15J 

.96875 

2 

.0125 

54 

.34375 

9 

.5625 

124 

.78125 

16 

1 . 


.15625 

6 

.373 

94 

.59375 

13 

.8125 




USEFUL NUMBERS IN CALCULATING WEIGHTS AND 

MEASURES, ETC. 

Feet multiplied by .00019 equals miles. 


Yards 

it 

.0006 

it 

miles. 

Links 

it 

.22 

it 

yards. 

Links 

it 

.66 

it 

feet. 

Feet 

it 

1.5 

it 

links. 

Square inches 

it 

.007 

it 

square feet. 

Circular inches 

u 

.00546 

it 

square feet. 

Square feet 

tt 

.111 

it 

square yards. 

Acres 

u 

.4840 

it 

square yards. 

Square yards 

it 

.0002066 

it 

acres. 

Width in chains 

it 

.8 

it 

acres per m. 

Cube feet 

it 

.04 

it 

cube yards. 

Cube inches 

it 

.00058 

it 

cube feet. 

U. S. bushels 

it 

.0495 

it 

cube yards. 

U. S. bushels 

it 

1.2446 

it 

cube feet. 

U. S. bushels 

it 

2150.42 

it 

cube inches. 

Cube feet 

it 

.8036 

it 

U. S. bushels. 

Cube inches 

it 

.000466 

it 

U. S. bushels. 

U. S. gallons 

it 

.13367 

it 

cube feet. 

U. S. gallons 

it 

.231 

it 

cube inches. 

Cube feet 

it 

7.48 

it 

U. S. gallons. 

Cylindrical feet 

it 

5.874 

it 

IT. S. gallons. 

Cube inches 

it 

.004329 

it 

U. S. gallons. 

Cylindrical inches 

it 

.0034 

it 

U. S. gallons. 

Pounds 

it 

.009 

it 

cwt. 

Pounds 

it 

.00045 

it 

tons. 

Cubic foot of water 

it 

62.5 

it 

lbs. avoird. 

Cubic inch of water 

it 

.03617 

it 

lbs. avoird. 

Cylindrical foot of water 

it 

49.1 

it 

lbs. avoird. 







HAND-BOOK OF MODERN STEAM FIRE-ENGINES. 219 


Cylindrical inch of water mult, by .02842 equals lbs. avoird. 


U. S. gallons of water 

it 

13.44 

u 

1 cwt. 

U. S. gallons of water 

(C 

268.8 

u 

1 ton. 

Cubic feet of water 

(C 

1.8 

(( 

1 cwt. 

Cubic feet of water 

u 

35.88 

u 

1 ton. 

Cylindrical foot of water 

it 

6. 

a 

U. S. gallons. 

Column of water, 12 in. 

high, 1 in. diameter 

(( 

341 lbs. 

183.346 circular inches 



u 

1 square foot. 

2200 cylindrical inches 


/ 

a 

1 cubic foot. 

French metres multiplied by 

3.291 

a 

feet. 

Kilogrammes 

it 

2.205 

a 

avoird. lbs. 

Grammes 

u 

.002205 

a 

avoird. lbs. 


DECIMAL EQUIVALENTS TO THE FRACTIONAL PARTS 
OF A GALLON OR AN INCH. 


(The Inch or Gallon being divided into 32 parts.) 

In multiplying decimals, it is usual to drop all but the first two or three figures. 


oi 

75 

rt 

r* 

• pH 

i-i 

O 

r*. 

g o 

p2 


03 

02 

U 

02 

75 

O 

5 ° 

£ c 

02 

03 

03 

03 

75 

a 

° p4 
§1 

03 

03 

0? 

Q} 

75 M 


a 

Cw 

a 

’c3 t ~ i 


a 

Cw 

o 

03 

£3 HH 

C5 


a 

ai 

Pi 

o 

o 

P 

a 

p 

O 

O 

P 

a 

P 

o 

3 


CO 

.03125 

1-32 

1 

i 

3 

.375 

3-8 

12 

3 

i* 

.71875 

23-32 

23 

5| 

23 

.0625 

1-16 

2 

i 

I 

.40625 

13-32 

13 

31 

n 

.75 

3-4 

24 

6 

3 

.09375 

3-32 

3 

i 

1 

.4375 

7-16 

14 

31 

ii 

.78125 

25-32 

25 

61 

33 

.125 

1-8 

4 

1 

i 

.46875 

15-32 

15 

3| 

13 

.8125 

13-16 

26 

61 

31, 

.15625 

5-32 

5 

H 

3 

.5 

3 

16 

4 

2 

.84375 

27-32 

27 

6| 

33 

.1875 

3-16 

6 

l£ 

1 

.53125 

17-32 

17 

43 

23 

.875 

7-8 

28 

7 

31 

.21875 

7-32 

7 

11 

3 

.5625 

9-16 

18 

4i 

21 

.90625 

29-32 

29 

71 

3f 

.25 

1-4 

8 

2 

1 

.59375 

19-32 

19 

41 

21 

.9375 

15-16 

30 

71 

3? 

.28125 

9-32 

9 

21 U 

.625 

5-8 

20 

5 

21 

.96875 

31-32 

31 

71 

33 

.3125 

5-16 

10 

2*11 

.65625 

21-32 

21 

51 

23 

1.000 

1 

32 

8 

4 

.34375 

11-32 

11 

2S If 

.6875 

11-16 

22 

51 

21 







UNITS. 

Unit of Heat. — The unit of heat varies: the French 
unit of heat, called a “ caloric” is the amount of heat 
necessary to raise one kilogramme (2.2046215 pounds) of 
water one degree Centigrade, or from 0° C. to 1° C. In 
this country and in England the amount of heat necessaiy 
to raise one pound of water one degree Fahrenheit, or from 
32° Fall, to 33° Fall., is taken as the unit of heat. 












































220 HAND-BOOK OF MODEKN STEAM FIRE-ENGINES. 

Unit of Length. — The unit of length used in this coun¬ 
try and in England is the yard, the length of which has 
been determined by means of a pendulum, vibrating sec¬ 
onds in the latitude of London, in a vacuum and at the 
level of the sea. The length of such a pendulum is to be 
divided into 3,913,929 parts, and 3,600,000 of these parts are 
to constitute a yard. The yard is divided into 36 inches, 
so that the length of the seconds pendulum in London is 
39.13929 inches. 

The French unit of length, called the metre, has been 
taken as being the ten-millionth part of the quadrant of 
a meridian passing through Paris; that is to say, the ten- 
millionth part of the distance between the equator and the 
pole, measured through Paris. It is equal to 39.3707898 
inches. The metre is divided into one thousand millime¬ 
tres, one hundred centimetres, and ten decimetres; while a 
decametre is ten metres, a hectometre one hundred me¬ 
tres, a kilometre one thousand metres, and a myriametre 
ten thousand metres. The following table gives the value 
of these measurements in English inches and yards : 



In English Inches. 

In English Yards. 

Millimetre. 

0.03937 

0.0010936 

Centimetre. 

0.39371 

0.0109363 

Decimetre. 

3.93708 

0.1093633 

Metre. 

39.37079 

1.0936331 

Decametre. 

393.70790 

10.9363310 

Hectometre. 

3937.07900 

109.3633100 

Kilometre. 

39370.79000 

1093.6331000 

Myriametre. 

393707.90000 

10936.3310000 


One English yard is equal to 0.91438 metre; while one 
mile is equal to 1.60931 kilometres. 

Unit of Surface. — For the unit of surface, the square 
inch, foot, and yard adopted in this country and in Eng- 

























HAND-BOOK OF MODERN STEAM FIRE-ENGINES. 221 

land are replaced in the metric system by the square mil¬ 
limetre, centimetre, decimetre, and metre. 

1 square metre = 1.1960333 square yards. 

1 square inch = 6.4513669 square centimetres. 

1 square foot = 9.2899683 square decimetres. 

1 square yard = 0.83609715 square metre. 

Unit of Capacity. — The cubic inch, foot, and yard 
furnish measures of capacity ; but irregular measures, such 
as the pint and gallon, are also used in this country and 
in England. The gallon contains ten pounds avoirdupois 
weight of distilled water at 62 Fall.; the pint is one-eighth 
part of a gallon. 

The French unit of capacity is the cubic decimetre or 
litre, equal to 1.7607 English pints, or 0.2200 English 
gallon ; and we have cubic inches, decimetres, centimetres, 
and millimetres. 

1 litre = 61.027052 cubic inches. 

1 cubic foot = 28.315311 litres. 

1 cubic inch = 16.386175 cubic centimetres. 

1 gallon = 4.543457 litres. 

Unit of Weight .—The unit of weight used in this coun¬ 
try and in England, viz., the pound, is derived from the 
standard gallon, which contains 277.274 cubic inches; the 
weight of one-tentli of this is the pound avoirdupois, which 
is divided into 7000 grains. 

The French measures of weight are derived at once 
from the measures of capacity, by taking the weight of 
cubic millimetres, centimetres, decimetres, or metres of 
water at its maximum density, that is at 4° C. or 39° Fall. 
A cubic metre of water is a tonne, a cubic decimetre a 
kilogramme, a cubic centimetre a gramme, and a cubic 
millimetre a milligramme. 

19* 







222 HAND-BOOK OF MODERN STEAM FIRE-ENGINES. 


Milligramme (toW part °f a gramme) 
Centigramme part of a gramme). 

Decigramme (A part °f a gramme)... 
( 4 r a m m p..,. 

In English 
Grains. 

In Pounds 
Avoirdupois 

1 pound = 
700 grammes. 

0.015432 

0.154323 

1.543235 

15.432349 

154.323488 

1543.324880 

15432.348800 

154323.488000 

0.0000022 

0.0000220 

0.0002205 

0.0022046 

0.0220462 

0.2204621 

2.2046213 

22.0462126 

Decagramme (10 grammes). 

Hectogramme (100 grammes). 

Kilogramme (1000 grammes). 

Myriagramme (10000 grammes). 


Unit of Time or Duration. —The unit of time or dura¬ 
tion is the same for all civilized countries. The twenty- 
fourth part of a mean solar day is called an hour, which 
contains sixty minutes, which again is divided into sixty 
seconds. The second is universally used as the unit of 
duration. 

Another unit of time is the period occupied by the earth 
in making one revolution around the sun, in reference to 
an assumed fixed star, which unit is called a sidereal year, 
and contains 365 days, 6 hours, 9 minutes, 9.6 seconds 
mean solar time. 

Unit of Velocity. — The units of velocity adopted by 
different scientific writers vary somewhat; the most usual, 
perhaps, in regard to sound, falling bodies, projectiles, etc., 
is the velocity of feet or metres per second. In the case 
of light and electricity, miles and kilometres per second 
are employed. 

Unit of Work. —In this country and in England the 
unit of work is usually the foot-pound, viz., the force neces¬ 
sary to raise one pound weight one foot above the earth in 
opposition to the force of gravity. A horse-power is equal 
to 33,000 pounds raised to a height of one foot in one 
minute of time. 

In France the kilogrammetre is the unit of work, and 


















HAND-BOOK OF MODERN STEAM FIRE-ENGINES. 223 


is the force necessary to raise one kilogramme to a height 
of one metre against the force of gravity. One kilogram- 
metre = 7.233 foot-pounds. The cheval-vapeur is nearly 
equal to the English horse-power, and is equivalent to 
32,500 pounds raised to a height of one foot in one minute 
of time. The force competent to produce a velocity of 
one metre in one second, in a mass of one gramme, is 
sometimes adopted as a unit of force. 

Unit of Pressure. The pressure of the atmosphere at 
the level of the ocean, with the barometer at 30 inches, is 
taken as the unit in estimating and comparing pressures 
and elastic forces. 

THE METRIC SYSTEM OF MEASURES AND WEIGHTS. 

The Metric System of Measures and Weights, owing 
to its extreme simplicity and the facilities afforded in cal¬ 
culations by its complete decimal character, and conse¬ 
quent freedom from labor in converting one denomination 
into another, has been adopted by most of the European 
nations. Its use has also been legalized in the United 
States, by an Act of Congress, passed July 28, 1866, in 
which it is provided that “ It shall be lawful throughout 
the United States of America to employ the weights and 
measures of the metric system; and no contract, or deal¬ 
ing, or pleading in any court shall be deemed invalid or 
liable to objection because the weights and measures ex¬ 
pressed or referred to therein are weights and measures 
of the metric system.” 








METRIC MEASURES OF LENGTH. 


221 


HAND-BOOK OF MODERN STEAM FIRE-ENGINES. 


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hand-book of modern steam 


FIRE-ENGINES. 225 


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226 


HAND-BOOK OF MODERN STEAM FIRE-ENGINES, 



A.DEMAREST.SC.NJ*. 

BLAKE’S SPECIAL STEAM FIRE-PUMP, described on page 235. 
















































































HAND-BOOK OF MODERN STEAM FIRE-ENGINES. 227 


PUMPS. 

Pumps, whether hand-power or steam, for whatever 
purpose used, whether for raising liquids or extinguishing 
fires, should be considered as mere hydraulic machines, 

placed at one end of a tube or hose, to remove the press- 

# 

ure of the air from the inside of the tube, while the atmos¬ 
phere is left free to act on the surface of the liquid or 
fluid in which the other end of the tube is immersed. So far 
as the accomplishment of this object is concerned, it is im¬ 
material what the shape of the pump-barrel may be, or of 
what material it is constructed, provided that it is air-tight. 
The cylindrical form is that most generally adopted; not 
because it increases the efficiency of the pump, but simply 
because it offers better advantages for fitting, and conse¬ 
quently can be more economically manufactured than any 
other. Pumps with square or oval cylinders, if thoroughly 
fitted, would be just as efficient as those with round cyl¬ 
inders, but they would be more expensive to manufac¬ 
ture and more difficult to repair. 

Pumps may be divided into two classes, “lift or suction” 
and “ forcethough some perform the double duty of lift¬ 
ing and forcing. These, again, are divided into several 
varieties : the “ single-acting,” “ double-acting,” “ rotary,” 
“centrifugal,” “ bucket and plunger,” and “ solid piston.” 
The “ single-acting ” pump draws or allows the water to 
enter the barrel at one end of the stroke and forces it out 
at the other. The “double-acting,” as its name implies, 
forces the water out at each end of the stroke, the water 
following the piston and filling the barrel as each movement 
is made, but changing its direction at each stroke to either 
end of the barrel; one pump of this description is equal to 
two single-acting pumps of the same capacity. 

Rotary pumps, when well constructed, are very effi- 





228 HAND-BOOK OF MODERN STEAM FIRE-ENGINES. 

cient, as the water flows in continuously in one direction 
and out at the other, without change of motion, which 
induces less loss of power than any other mechanical 
arrangement. But though theoretically considered, all 
rotary machines are perfect, yet rotary pumps have never, 
until quite lately, been able to maintain a permanent 
place among machines for raising water. This arose from 
a want of proper facilities and experience to aid in their 
construction. The great difficulties which have hereto¬ 
fore limited their usefulness and application are now T being 
successfully removed, and Holly’s Rotary Pump, used on 
the Silsby Steam Fire-Engine, is claimed to be one of the 
most simple, durable, and efficient pumps in the country. 

Centrifugal Pumps. —The principle on which the cen¬ 
trifugal pump is based consists, essentially, in the rapid 
revolution of fans or arms in a scroll, sweeping or whirling 
the contained air to wherever it may find a vent; the 
centrifugal momentum acquired in the revolution reacting 
from the inner walls of the scroll, and resolving itself into 
a force acting in the direction of the discharge. Heald 
and Cisco’s centrifugal pumps are very efficient for wreck¬ 
ing and mining purposes, or wherever it becomes necessary 
to displace large bodies of water in a short time. They 
are very extensively used, both in this country and in 
Europe. 

The Bucket and Plunger Pump. —This class of pumps 
is extremely simple, both in design and construction. 
They have but two valves, and possess the same advan¬ 
tages of delivery as double-acting pumps. The water is 
received only on the upward stroke, the amount being 
equal to the full capacity of the cylinder. Only one-half, 
however, is discharged, owing to the smaller area of the 
upper side of the piston. On the downward stroke, the 
water in the cylinder is forced out by the piston — one- 


HAND-BOOK OF MODERN STEAM FIRE-ENGINES. 229 


half being discharged, the other half flowing into the 
upper end of the cylinder. Wright’s Double-acting 
Bucket-plunger Pump, manufactured by the Valley Ma¬ 
chine Co., Easthampton, Mass., is one of the most simple 
and efficient pumps in use. 

Solid Piston-Pumps. — This is the most ancient of all 
pumps, aiid it was extensively used in Egypt 500 years 
B.C. The capacity of a piston-pump is its area multiplied 
by the length of its. stroke; but it must be remembered 
that all pumps throw less water than their theoretic capa¬ 
city would indicate. Consequently, the piston-pump is 
often condemned for no other reason than that there are a 
great many poor ones manufactured, which, as a matter 
of course, does not at all affect the principle involved in 
the working of such pumps. 

Atmospheric “lift” or “suction” pumps cause the 
water to raise itself by having its surface relieved of the 
column of air resting upon it.* If, therefore, one end of 
a pipe or tube be lowered into water, the other end 
closed by means of a valve or other device, and the air 
contained in the pipe be drawn out, it is evident that the 
surface of the water within the pipe will be relieved of the 
pressure of the atmosphere. There will then be no resist¬ 
ance offered to the water to prevent its rising in the tube. 
The water outside of the pipe, still having the pressure 
of the atmosphere upon its surface, therefore forces water 
up into the pipe, supplying the place of the excluded air, 
while the water inside the pipe will rise above the level 
of that outside of it proportionally to the extent to which 
it is relieved of the pressure of the air; so that, if the first 

* The idea entertained by many that water is raised by suction, is 
erroneous, as, properly speaking, there is no such principle as suction. 
Water or other liquids are raised through a tube or hose by having 
the pressure of the atmosphere removed from their surface. 

20 





230 HAND-BOOK OF MODERN STEAM FIRE-ENGINES. 

stroke of a pump reduce the pressure of the air contained 
in the pipe from 15 pounds on the square inch (which is 
its normal pressure) to 14 pounds, the water will be forced 
up the pipe to the distance of about feet, since a column 
of water an inch square and feet high is equal to about 
1 pound in weight. 

It is evident that, upon the reduction of the pressure of 

the air contained in the pipe from 15 to 14 pounds per 
square inch, there would be (unless the water ascended the 
pipe) an unequal pressure upon its surface inside, as com¬ 
pared to that outside of the pipe; but in consequence of 
the water rising 2| feet in the pipe, the pressure on the 
surface of the water, both inside and outside, is evenly bal¬ 
anced (taking the level of the outside water to be the 
natural level of the water inside), as the pressure upon 
the water exposed to the full atmosphere is 15 pounds upon 
each square inch of its surface, while that upon the same 
plane, but within the pipe, will sustain a column of water 
2| feet high (weighing 1 pound) and 14 pounds pressure 
of air, making a total of 15 pounds, which is, therefore, an 
equilibrium of pressure over the whole surface of the water 
at its natural level. 

If, in consequence of a second stroke of the pump, the 

air-pressure in the pipe is reduced to 13 pounds per inch, the 
water will rise another 2| feet. This rule is uniform, and 
shows that the rise of a column of water within the pipe is 
equal in weight to the pressure of the air upon the surface 
of the water without; hence it is only necessary to deter¬ 
mine the height of a column of water that will weigh 15 
pounds per square inch of area at the base, to ascertain 
how far a suction-pump will cause water to rise. 

But it must be remembered that the distance varies 
with the height above sea level, and also with the pressure 
of the atmosphere. At our level of the sea, the column 


HAND-BOOK OF MODERN STEAM FIRE-ENGINES. 231 


of water that the atmosphere will support is about 33 feet 
iu height, and a pump will “ draw water,” as it is called, 
this distance ; but the force which sends the water into the 
pump at this height is so diminished as to be almost bal¬ 
anced by its own weight; hence a lifting pump would 
deliver water very slowly, drawing it this distance. To 
be perfectly reliable, the cylinder and piston should 
be in good order, all the joints perfectly air-tight, a 
check-valve be placed in the lower end of the suction- 
pipe ; and even then the pump should be run at a high 
speed. Pumps will give more satisfactory results when 
the lift is from 22 to 25 feet. There is hardly any 
limit to the distance a pump will draw water through a 
horizontal suction-pipe, provided the pipe is perfectly tight, 
and everything is so proportioned as not to cause undue 
friction. 

The great trouble with long pump-pipes is the difficulty 
of getting them perfectly tight; cast connections some¬ 
times contain small sand holes, and screw connections are 
often imperfect; in fact, all long suction-pipes, especially 
where the lift is high, are apt to leak, which of course in¬ 
terferes with the efficiency of the pump. 

Force-pumps are those by means of which the water is 
expelled from the pump-barrel, and through the delivery- 
pipe by means of the mechanical force applied to the 
pump-piston or plunger; the amount of power required 
to drive such a pump will, therefore, depend at all times 
upon the height to which the water is required to be forced. 
When a pump is arranged to draw the water, and force it 
after it has left the pump-barrel, it is termed a lift- and 
force-pump; but if the water merely flows into it in con¬ 
sequence of the level of the water-supply being equal to or 
above that of the top of the pump-barrel, it is termed 
simply a force-pump. Hence a suction-pump performs its 











232 HAND-BOOK OF MODERN STEAM FIRE-ENGINES. 


duty in causing the water to rise to the pump; a force- 
pump is one which performs its duty in expelling water 
from its barrel; and a suction- and force-pump is one 
which performs both duties alternately. 

No pump will lift very hot water, for the reason that, 
the atmospheric pressure being removed, it passes in vapor 
through the suction-pipe, and fills the cylinder with steam 
instead of water, so that on the return-stroke, the piston, 
meeting with no resistance, moves rapidly, until, suddenly 
striking the water which partially fills the cylinder, a 
violent concussion is produced, which is very injurious to 
the pump and its connections. Therefore, for pumping 
hot liquids, the point of supply should not be below the 
pump, but if possible a little above it, so that the liquid 
may flow into it. n. 

The capacity of any pump can be easily determined, if 
its dimensions are known, by multiplying the area of the 
piston in inches by its stroke in inches, giving the number 
of cubic iuches per single stroke; this, divided by 231 (the 
number of cubic inches in a standard gallon), will give 
the number of gallons per single stroke; but it must be re¬ 
membered that all pumps throw less water than their capac¬ 
ity, the deficiency ranging from 20 to 40 per cent., according 
to the quality of the pump. This loss arises from the lift 
and fall of the valves, from inaccuracy of fit or leakage, 
and in many cases from there being too much space 
between the valves and piston, or plunger. The higher 
the valves of any pump have to lift to give the necessary 
opening, the less efficient the pump will be. 

The power required to raise a given quantity of water 
a certain height can be easily computed by the following 
rule: Multiply the amount of water in gallons to be raised 
per minute by 8.35, (the weight of a gallon of water,) and 
this product by the height, in feet, of the discharge from 


HAND-BOOK OF MODERN STEAM FIRE-ENGINES. 233 


the point of suction; divide the result by 33,000, which 
will give the theoretical horse-power required to raise the 
amount of water a certain distance. But from this result 
there should be an allowance made of from 10 to 30 per 
cent., for loss induced from leakage in the pipes, short 
bends, bad condition of the pump, friction of water in the 
pipes, friction of the parts of the pump in contact, etc. 

STEAM-PUMPS.. 

Steam-pumps may be said to be among the most essen¬ 
tial requisites of the age, and the competition which exists 
in their manufacture is something wonderful. The machine 
market is full to overflowing with pumps of different pat¬ 
terns, and adapted to almost every variety of purpose ; this 
arises from the fact that in a great many locations where 
power has to be employed in raising water, steam is the only 
power which can be conveniently applied. It is suitable 
for almost any situation, is easily managed, is generally 
understood by mechanics, and presents no difficulties not 
easily overcome. Its universal adaptability, and the im¬ 
mense demand for steam-driven pumps, have turned the 
attention of engineers and capitalists in this direction, and 
at the present time the manufacture of steam-pumps and 
their accessories ranks as one of the most extensive indus¬ 
tries in the country. 

It is interesting to note the fact, that Janies Watt, the 

so-called father of the steam-engine, was really a steam- 
pump man, all his engines for a great many years being 
devoted entirely to the pumping of water out of mines. 
The application of the steam-engine to the furnishing of 
power for other purposes was carried out by others. In 
Watt’s time, however, pumps worked by steam were cum¬ 
bersome, expensive, and unreliable ; but the manufacturers 
20 * 





234 HAND-BOOK OF MODERN STEAM FIRE-ENGINES. 


of' the present day have so simplified and cheapened them, 
that while their cost is very small, their management is 
so simple that they may be said to be perfectly automatic. 

The following are the names of the pumps most gener¬ 
ally employed in manufacturing, mining, and mechanical 
engineering: Boiler feed-pumps, tank or light service 
pumps, special fire-pumps, mining pumps, tannery pumps, 
brewer’s mash- and beer- pumps, brewer’s water- and air- 
pumps, marine bilge- and fire-pumps, marine air-pumps, 
wrecking pumps, oil-refinery pumps, oil line-pumps, sugar- 
house pumps, plantation pumps, vacuum pumps, locomo¬ 
tive pumps, plunger pumps, hydraulic pumps, combined 
boiler and pump, low-pressure pump, air-pumps, acid 
pumps, gas-works pumps, lard or soap pumps, bleachery 
pumps, drainage and irrigating pumps, vinegar pumps, 
quarry pumps, and marine circulating pumps. This latter 
class, particularly the “ Blake,” is rapidly gaining favor, 
as, in consequence of being independent of the main engines, 
they can be run at any desirable speed, and furnish a 
great safeguard against foundering at sea in case of acci¬ 
dent to the main engines. If the pumps were attached 
to the main engines, the same weight of water could be 
discharged overboard, provided that engines could be run 
at the proper speed ; but it must be remembered that it 
takes the whole power of the boilers to run the engines at 
the ordinary speed, and that their speed cannot be in¬ 
creased in an emergency. Oftentimes, by reducing the 
speed of the main engines, the independent circulating 
pump can be kept at its maximum, hence its great advan¬ 
tage. No ocean steamer, lake or river boat can be con¬ 
sidered safe, unless it has on board one or two reliable in¬ 
dependent steam-pumps. They are as indispensable for 
marine purposes as life-boats. 

As boiler feeders, steam-pumps are superior to any 
other known device, being capable of forcing water against 


HAND-BOOK OF MODERN STEAM FIRE-ENGINES. 235 


the most extreme pressures, and of supplying boilers when 
circumstances require the stoppage of the engine. They 
may be regulated to furnish either a constant supply or 
a great quantity of water in a short time; but as fire-extin¬ 
guishers, they are indispensable, as, with a good supply 
of water, and a steam-pump of sufficient power and capac¬ 
ity to force it to a great height or distance, there can be 
no reason why almost any fire cannot be held in check, or 
even extinguished, without the aid of a steam fire-engine. 
Millions of dollars’worth of valuable property are destroyed 
every year, which might have been saved by the judicious 
investment of a few thousands in reliable steam-pumps. 
Their great value as a means of extinguishing fire and 
preventing the destruction of valuable property is begin¬ 
ning to be universally appreciated. 

BLAKE’S SPECIAL STEAM FIRE-PUMP. 

The cut on page 226 represents Blake’s Special 
Steam Fire-pump. — This pump has two steam-valves, 
viz., a main and an auxiliary, both of which are plain, 
flat slide-valves, the same as used in the simple steam- 
engine. The main valve is placed in such a position as 
to be driven by an ordinary spring-ring steam-piston, that 
becomes necessarily as positive in action as any steam- 
piston when exposed to pressure, being a common D valve 
controlling the ordinary three-ported steam-engine. 

The auxiliary valve is a plain, flat slide-valve attached 
to a valve-rod, which receives an impulse from the main 
steam-piston; it is therefore moved with the same degree 
of certainty that an eccentric moves the slide-valve of an 
ordinary steam-engine; thi3 is a B valve. The movable 
seat is a casting forming the auxiliary valve, which has 
three ports, coinciding in every position with the three 






236 HAND-BOOK OF MODERN STEAM FIRE-ENGINES. 


ports of the main engine, thus forming an upward exten¬ 
sion of the engine ports, on the upper seat of which the 
main valve takes its position. 

If the main piston attains a velocity exceeding that of 
the piston which drives the valve, it would certainly strike 
the cylinder-head. The movable seat makes such an 
impact an impossibility; since, having a mechanical con¬ 
nection with the valve-rod, it is brought into such position 
as to become the main valve, independent of the action of 
the main valve proper, and gives direct steam to cushion 
and reverse the engine. 

The pressure of a small cylinder surmounting the main 
cylinder must not be confounded with that generally used. 
This cylinder is for the purpose of containing an ordinary 
spring-ring steam-piston—not a valve — which is the 
motor for the main valve. The main and auxiliary valves 
are merely flat, plain surfaces, and their respective posi¬ 
tions being face to face, the wear is consequently even, as 
well as compensating, precisely the same as with any 
plain steam-engine valve. 

The pistons are made with adjustable spring-rings, and 
compensate for wear, and are so arranged as to permit the 
packing-rings in the cylinder to revolve, which renders 
the wear more uniform than if the rings were stationary. 
The stuffing-boxes are made of the best composition, which 
prevents the possibility of waste, either by high tempera¬ 
tures or corrosion. All the parts are made sufficiently 
strong to withstand the heaviest concussion to which a 
pump can be subjected; but, in the event of the breakage 
of any of the parts resulting from accident, as the parts 
are all made to standard gauges, they can be duplicated by 
simply writing to the factory or warehouse. The Blake 
Fire-pump is one of the most powerful, efficient, and dura¬ 
ble pumps in the country; it is symmetrical in design, 


HAND-BOOK OF MODERN STEAM FIRE-ENGINES. 237 


simple iii construction, and is so arranged that any of the 
pieces can be disengaged without disturbing any part of 
the pump. They are manufactured in sizes ranging from 
8 in. diameter of steam-cylinder, 5 in. diameter of water- 
cylinder to 24 in. diameter of steam-cylinder, 12 in. diam¬ 
eter of water-cylinder. 

WRIGHT’S BUCKET-PLUNGER STEAM FIRE-PUMP. 

The cut on the following page represents Wright’s 
Vertical Bucket-plunger Steam Fire-pump. The steam- 
cylinder rests on an open, upright, circular frame. The 
cylinder and frame constitute one solid casting (except in 
the larger sizes) ; the pedestal of the latter is firmly bolted 
to an oval base, which contains the suction and discharge 
openings of the pump. The crank-shaft and crank-pin 
are made from one solid piece of steel, the eccentric being 
firmly keyed to the latter, preventing the possibility of 
any derangement of the valve motion, while the opening 
in the front of the upright frame affords easy facility for 
packing the steam- and water-piston, or for the adjustment 
of the yoke motion. The water-valves are simply circular 
pieces of metal, rubber, or leather, rising on a stem which 
is fastened to the valve-seats, access to them being obtained 
through openings on either side of the pump by simply 
unscrewing two nuts. The packing-rings in the water- 
plunger are made of gun-metal, the inside ring being 
made thinnest at the cut, thus giving more elasticity with 
less friction. Leather packing may be used instead of the 
rings, if preferred, or a solid bronze metal end may be used 
instead of either. 

The water-valves can be removed by simply unscrewing 
two nuts and withdrawing the wedge that rests on the 
discharge-valve stem, the suction-valves being directly 





238 HAND-BOOK OF MODERN STEAM FIRE-ENGINES. 



WRIGHT'S RIIGKFT-PI IINGFR ST F A SA FIRF.PlirP 
































































































































































HAND-BOOK OF MODERN STEAM FIRE-ENGINES. 239 


under the discharge-valves in the base of the pump. 
Rubber valves can be substituted for metal, or vice versa, 
without a change of valve-seats. The steam-valve is 
properly “ set ” and the eccentric keyed on the ■ shaft. 
The best quality of steel is.used for the valve-stems and 
piston-rods. Brass is used for stuffing-box glands and 
nuts and genuine Babbitt mixture in the shaft bearings. 
The shaft, crank, and crank-pin form one continuous 
w rought-i ron forging. 

The manufacturers of this pump claim, that, as very 
little of the power of the engine of a steam-pump is ex¬ 
pended in getting the water into the cylinder through the 
suction-valves, but is nearly all used in forcing it out, they 
gain a great advantage by making the water-cylinder 
twice the area of ordinary double-acting steam-pumps; 
they also dispense with one-half the number of water- 
valves, as the quantity discharged on the upper stroke is 
thrown out through an opening in the top of the pump 
cylinder, and does not pass through them. These pumps 
are very simple in design and construction, and have the 
reputation of being very durable and efficient. 


DIMENSIONS OF THE BUCKET-PLUNGER STEAM 

FIRE-PUMPS. 






































240 HAND-BOOK OF MODERN STEAM FIRE-ENGINES. 


PROPORTIONS OF STEAM FIRE-PUMPS. 


Diam. 
Steam 
Cyl. in 
Inches. 

Diam. 
Water 
Cyl. in 
Inches. 

Stroke 

in 

Inches. 

Gallons 
per Stroke. 

Steam 
Pipe in 
Inches. 

Exha’st 
Pipe in 
Inches. 

Suction 
Pipe in 
Inches. 

Discharge 
Pipe in 
Inches. 

8 

5 

12 

1.02 

1 

I i 

3* 

3 

10 

5 

12 

1.02 

I 4 

2 

3£ 

3 

10 

6 

12 

1.47 

H 

2 

3£ 

3 

12 

6 

12 

1.47 

l* 

2J 

3J 

3 

12 

7 

12 

2.00 

H 

2* 

4 

3 

14 

7 

12 

2.00 

2 

3 

4 

two 3 

14 

8 

12 

2.61 

2 

3 

5 

“ 3 

16 

8 

18 

3.92 

2 

3 

6 


16 

9 

18 

4.96 

2 

3 

6 

“ 4 

18 

9 

24 

6.60 

2 

3 

8 

four 3 

18 

10 

24 

8.16 

2 

3 

8 

“ 3 

20 

10 

24 

8.16 

2b 


8 

“ 3 

20 

12 

24 

11.75 

2* 

3? 

8 

“ 3 


PROPORTIONS OF BOILER FEED-PUMPS. 


Diameter 
Steam 
Cylinder 
in Inches. 

Diam. 
Water 
Cylin¬ 
der in 
Inches. 

Length 

of 

Stroke 

in 

Inches. 

Gallons per 
Stroke. 

Steam 
Pipe in 
Inches. 

Exha’st 
Pipe in 
Inches. 

Suction 
Pipe in 
Inches. 

Discharge 
Pipe in 
Inches. 

4 

2 2 

“I 1 

.07 

1 

2 

3 

4 

1 

3 . 

4 

4 

2 \ 

5 

.11 

1 

2 

a. 

4 

H 

1 


3i 

7 

.25 

1 

2 

3 

4 


u 

6 

3:1 

7 

.33 

3 

4 

1 

2 

H 

71 

1 4 

4£ 

10 

.69 

1 

u 

2£ 

2 

8 

5 

10 

.85 

1 

li 

3 

2.]- 

8 

5 

12 

1.02 

1 

1* 

3^ 

3 

10 

6 

12 

1.47 

H 

2 

3? 

3 

12 

7 

12 

2.00 

1* 

2£ 

4 

3 

14 

8 

12 

2.61 

2 

3 

5 

3g 

16 

9 

18 

4.96 

2 

3 

6 

4 

18 

12 

24 

11.75 

2 

3 

8 

6 

20 

14 

24 

16.00 

2£ 

3£ 

10 

8 










































HAND-BOOK OF MODERN STEAM FIRE-ENGINES. 241 


PROPORTIONS OF MARINE-PUMPS. 


Steam 
Cylinder 
in Inches. 

Water 
Cylin¬ 
der in 
Inches. 

Stroke 

in 

Inches. 

Gallons per 
Stroke. 

Steam 
Pipe in 
Inches. 

Exhas’t 
Pipe in 
Inches. 

Suction 
Pipe in 
Inches. 

Dischg’e 
Pipe in 
Inches. 

6 

3f 

7 

.33 

3 

4 

1 

2 

1 * 

7 ¥ 

4.1 

10 

.69 

1 

1 * 

2 £ 

2 

n 

7 

10 

1.66 

1 

1 * 

4 

3 

8 

5 

12 

1.02 

1 

1 * 

3£ 

3 

8 

8 

12 

2.61 

1 

ii 

5 


10 

6 

12 

1.47 


2 

3£ 

3 

10 

10 

12 

4.08 

u 

2 

5 

3J 

10 

12 

12 

5.87 

H 

2 

8 

6 

12 

7 

12 

2.00 

H 

2i 

4 

3 

12 

12 

12 

5.87 

H 

2 * 

8 

6 

12 

12 

18 

8.80 

l* 

1 

8 

6 

12 

14 

18 

12.00 

lg 

2 * 

8 

6 

14 

8 

12 

2.61 

2 

3 

5 

Si 

14 

12 

18 

8.80 

2 

3 

8 

6 

14 

14 

18 

12.00 

2 

3 

8 

6 

16 

9 

18 

4.96 

2 

3 

6 

4 

16 

14 

18 

12.00 

2 

3 

8 

6 

16 

14 

24 

16.00 

2 

3 

10 

8 

16 

16 

24 

20.89 





18 

18 

20 

22.03 





20 

20 

24 

32.64 






PROPORTIONS OF WRECKING-PUMPS. 


Steam 
Cylinder 
in Inches. 

Water 
Cylinder 
in Inches. 

Stroke in 
Inches. 

Steam 
Pipe in 
Inches. 

Exhaust 
Pipe in 
Inches. 

Suction 
Pipe in 
Inches. 

Discharge 
Pipe in 
Inches. 

8 

14 

10 

1 

H 

8 

7 

8 

10 

12 

1 

1 i 

5 

3* 

8 

12 

12 

1 

n 

8 

6 

10 

12 

12 

H 

2 

8 

6 

10 

14 

12 

n 

2 

8 

6 

12 

14 

18 

n 

2 

8 

6 

14 

16 

18 

2 

3 

12 

10 

14 

18 

18 

2 

3 

14 

12 

16 

20 

24 





18 

24 

24 





20 

30 

24 




1 




21 



















































242 HAND-BOOK OF MODERN STEAM FIRE-ENGINES, 


PROPORTIONS OF MINING-PUMPS. 


Steam 
Cyl. in 
Inches. 

Water 
Cyl. or 
Plunger 
in Ins. 

Stroke 
in Ius. 

Gallons 

per 

Stroke. 

Steam 
Pipe 
in Ins. 

Exha’st 
Pipe 
in Ins. 

Suction 
Pipe 
in Ins. 

Disch. 
Pipe 
in Ins. 

8 

5 

12 

1.02 

1 

n 

3* 

3 

10 

5 

12 

1.02 

n 

2 

31 

3 

10 

6 

12 

1.47 

H 

2 

3* 

3 

12 

6 

12 

1.47 


2| 

H 

3 

12 

7 

12 

2.00 

n 

2 1 

4 

3 

14 

7 

12 

2.00 

2 V 

3 

4 

3 

14 

8 

12 

2.61 

2 

\„3 

5 


14 

8 

18 

3.92 

2 

3 

6 

4 

1G 

8 

18 

3.92 

2 

3 

6 

4 

16 

9 

18 

4.96 

2 

3 

6 

4 

16 

9 

24 

6.60 

2 

3 

8 

6 

18 

9 

18 

4.96 

2 

3 

6 

4 

18 

9 

24 

6.60 

2 

3 

8 

6 

18 

10 

24 

8.16 

2 

3 

8 

6 

18 

10 

36 

12.24 

2 

3 

8 

6 

20 

10 

24 

8.16 

2 1 

31 

8 

6 

20 

10 

36 

12.24 

2* 

3* 

8 

6 

20 

12 

24 

11.75 

2* 

31 

10 

8 

24 

12 

36 

17.63 

3 

4 

10 

8 

24 

14 

24 

16.00 

3 

4 

12 

10 

24 

14 

36 

24.00 

3 

4 

12 

10 

30 

12 

36 

17.63 

4 

6 

10 

8 

30 

14 

36 

24.00 

4 

6 

12 

10 

30 

16 

50 

43.50 

• 

4 

6 

14 

12 


PROPORTIONS OF AIR-PUMPS. 


Diam. 
Steam 
Cyl. 
in Ins. 

Diam. 
Air Cyl. 
in Ins. 

Length 

of 

Stroke 
in Ins. 

Cubic feet 
of Air per 
Stroke. 

Size of 
Steam 
Pipe. 

Size of 
Exha’st 
Pipe. 

Size of 
Suction. 

Size of 
Disch. 

5 

10 

6 

.27 

1 

2 

3 

? 



5 

15 

6 

.66 

1 

2 

f 



7 

20 

9 

1.63 

3 

? 




10 

12 

16 

1.05 

H 

n 



10 

20 

16 

2.90 

n 

11 

d 

3 

<73 

10 

30 

16 

6.54 

H 

2 

o 

O 

10 

30 

36 

14.72 

H 

2 

bo 

-*-> 

bo 

14 

30 

16 

6.54 

2 

21 

c 

c 

12 

30 

36 

14.72 

n 

2“ 

r o 

'TD 

14 

30 

36 

14.72 

2 

21 

o 

a 

O 

o 

16 

30 

36 

14.72 

2 

2 1 

a 

c 

a 

• <; 

\ 18 

48 

48 

45.52 

21 

3 



1 24 

72 

•72 

169.64 

3 

4 



_ 37 

•- 

84 

120 




















































HAND-BOOK OF MODERN STEAM FIRE-ENGINES. 243 


PROPORTIONS OF TANK-PUMPS. 


Diam. 
of Steam 

Diam. of 
Water 

Length 

of 

Gallons per 

Size of 
Steam 

Size of 
Kxhsi’st 

Size of 

Size of 

Cyl. 
in Ins. 

Cyl. 
in Ins. 

Stroke 
in Ins. 

Stroke. 

Pipe. 

Pipe. 

Suction. 

charge. 

4 

4 

5 

.27 

1 

2 

3 

T 

H 

1 

5i 


6 

.62 

3 

T 

1 

3 4 

2 

n 

n 

9 

1.72 

3 

i 

It 

4 

3 

8 

8 

12 

2.61 

1 

H 

5 

5 

-10 

10 

16 

5.43 

H 

li 

6 

4 

10 

12 

16 

7.83 

H 

n 

8 

6 

12 

12 

16 

7.83 

2 

2\ 

8 

6 

14 

12 

24 

11.75 

2 

2\ 

8 

6 

14 

14 

24 

15.99 

2 

2\ 

10 

8 

14 

18 

24 

26.43 

2 

2\ 

12 

10 

16 

18 

24 

26.43 

2\ 

3 

12 

10 

14 

22 

24 

39.49 

2i 

3 

14 

12 

16 

16 

24 

20.80 

2\ 

3 

12 

10 

18 

12 

24 

11.75 

2\ 

3 

8 

6 

18 

14 

24 

15.99 

‘>1 

3 

10 

8 

18 

18 

24 

26.43 

91 

"2 

3 

12 

10 

18 

22 

24 

39.49 

91 

^2 

3 

14 

12 

18 

42 

24 

47. 

01 

Z 2 

3 

16 

14 


PROPORTIONS OF BREWERS’ AND DISTILLERS’ 

PUMPS. 


Diameter 
Steam 
Cylinder 
in Ins. 

Diam. 
Water 
Cyl. 
in Ins. 

Length 

of 

Stroke 
in Ins. 

Gallons per 
Stroke. 

Size of 
Steam 
Pipe. 

Size of 
Exha’st 
Pipe. 

Size of 
Suction. 

Size of 
Dis¬ 
charge. 

5* 

5£ 

6 

.62 

3 . 

4 

1 

3 

2 

7 

5 

10 

.75 

1 

H 

3 

2} 

71 

7* 

9 

1.72 

3 

4 

H 

4 

3 

8 

8 

12 

2.61 

1 

H 

5 

3£ 

10 

8 

12 

2.61 

I I 

1 * 

5 

3J 

10 

10 

16 

5.43 

n 


6 

4 

12 

10 

16 

5.43 

2 

2 | 

6 

4 

14 

10 

16 

5.43 

2 

2 * 

6 

4 

14 

12 

24 

11.75 

2 

2h 

8 

4 



























































244 HAND-BOOK OF MODERN STEAM FIRE-ENGINES. 

TABLE 

SHOWING THE PROPORTIONS OF STEAM - PUMPS DEMONSTRATED 
BY PRACTICAL EXPERIENCE TO BE THE BEST ADAPTED FOR 
THE VARIOUS PURPOSES FOR WHICH THEY ARE USED. 


u jri 

Sh GO 

^ o> 

^ CD ^ 

c n 

a 2 

O O T* 

% l 

S-l ” 

*■« « 

CO 

C/l ^ 

: o-r 

w 

CD 

00 ^ 

hn “ 
SC <u 

t <C,C 

C3 c ° 

cs.S a 


•H nO 

■er a 

r r; .£7 a 

05 g 0 

a».S a 

<!> r- O 

t.Sfl 

ct ^ ^ 

•■g.s-g 

7" -rH C 

^ 

Xi >• 



gPnt-l 

^ Ph 1—' 

1 ,_ “ l 1—< 

C/1 





u .9 


W a 

oj a 

•rH 

Q S 

* »rH 

CJ S 


W O 

X c 

5 .5 

4 

2 J 

2. 

4 

1 

3 

4 

10 

6 

K 

2 

34 

3 

4 

H 

2. 

4 

H 

1 

10 

2 

4 

3 

4 

24 

2. 

4 

H 

1 

10 

8 

x 2 

5 

34 

4 

4 

2 

4 

14 

1 4 

10 

9 

2 

6 

4 






10 

10 

2 

5 

34 

5} 

2 

2. 

4 

r4 

n 

10 

10 

2 

8 

6 

5} 

2^ 

2 

4 

14 

n 

10 

12 

2 

8 

6 

54 

34 

3 

4 

1 b 

H 

10 

12 

2 

8 

6 

54 

34 

3 

4 

2 

14 


44 

5k 

44 

3 

4 

24 

2 

12 

24 

34 

3 

5k 

54 

2 

4 

24 

2 

12 

5 

24 

34 

3 




12 

6 

24 

34 

3 

6 

24 

1 

14 


12 

r- 

/ 

24 

4 

3 

6 

3 

1 

14 

n 

12 

8 

24 

5 

34 

6 

34 

1 

14 

n 

12 

9 

24 

6 

4 

6 

34 

1 

2 

14 

12 

10 

24 

5 

34 

6 

44 

1 

24 

2 

12 

10 

24 

8 

6 

6 

54 

1 

3 

2 

12 

12 

01 

A? 

8 • 

6 

n 



24 


12 

12 

24 

8 

6 

3 

14 

2 

12 

14 

24 

8 

6 

n 

34 

44 

14 

2 

12 

16 

24 

12 

10 

n 

44 

i"4 

2^ 

2 

12 

18 

24 

14 

12 

7£ 

5 

1 

3 

24 

14 


7J 

rr 

/ 

14 

4 

3 ? 

4 

3 

3 

2 




14 

4 

3 

3 

2 

8 

34 

14 

24 

2 

14 

5 

3 

34 

3 

8 

44 

14 

24 

2 

14 

5 

3 

34 

3 

8 

5 

14 

3 

24 

14 

6 

3 

34 

3 

8 

14 

14 

8 

7 

14 

t 

Q 

4 

3 

8 

5 

14 

34 

3 

14 

tj 

i 

3 

4 

3 

8 

6 

14 

34 

3 

14 

8 

O 

O 

** 

0 

34 

8 

7 

14 

4 

3 

14. 

8 

»> 

O 

6 

4 

8 

8 

14 

5 

34 

14 

9 

0 

O 

6 

4 

8 

10 

14 

5 

34 

14 

10 

/ 3 

5 

34 

8 

10 

14 

6 

4 

14 

10 

3 

8 

6 

8 

12 

14 

8 

6 

14 

12 

O 

O 

8 

6 

8 

12 

2 

8 

6 

14 

12 

3 

8 

6 






14 

14 

3 

8 

6 

10 

4 

2 

3 

2 

14 

16 

3 

12 

10 

10 

5 

2 

34 

3 

14 

18 

3 

14 

12 











































HAND-BOOK OF MODERN STEAM FIRE-ENGINES. 245 


TABLE —( Continued .) 


Steam 
Cyl. in In. 

Water 
Cyl. in In. 

Steam 

Pipeinln. 

Exhaust 

Pipeinln. 

Suction 

Pipeinln. 

Discharge 

Pipeinln. 

Steam 

Cyl. in In. 

Water 

Cyl. in In. 

Steam 

Pipe inln. 

Exhaust 

Pipeinln. 

Suction 

Pipeinln. 

Discharge 

Pipe inln. 

14f 

9 

2 

3 

6 

4 

18 

20 

2 

3 



14! 

10 

2 

3 

8 

6 

18 

24 

2 

3 



14! 

12 

2 

3 

8 

6 

18 

30 

2 

3 



14! 

14 

2 

3 

10 

8 







14! 

15 

2 

3 

10 

8 

20 

7 

2* 

34 

4 

3 







20 

9 

2* 

34 

6. 

4 

16 

5 

2 

3 

34 

3 

20 

10 

24 

34 

8 

6 

16 

7 

2 

3 

4 

3 

20 

10 

2* 

34 

8 

6 

16 

8 

2 

3 

6 

4 

20 

12 

24 

34 

8 

6 

16 

9 

2 

3 

6 

4 

20 

12 

24 

34 

8 

6 

16 

9 

2 

3 

8 

6 

20 

14 

24 

34 

8 

6 

16 

10 

2 

3 

8 

6 

20 

14 

2 b 

34 

10 

8 

16 

10 

2 

3 

8 

6 

20 

14 

2i 

34 

10 

8 

16 

12 

2 

3 

8 

6 

20 

15 

2 2 

34 

10 

8 

16 

12 

2 

3 

8 

6 

20 

15 

24 

34 

10 

8 

16 

14 

2 

3 

8 

6 

20 

20 

24 

0 1 

o*r 



16 

14 

2 

3 

10 

8 

20 

24 

24 

34 



16 

14 

2 

3 

10 

8 

20 

30 

22 

34 



16 

15 

2 

3 

10 

8 

24 

9 

3 

4 

6 

4 

16 

16 

2 

3 

12 

10 

24 

10 

3 

4 

8 

6 

16 

18 

2 

3 

14 

12 

24 

10 

3 

4 

8 

6 

16 

20 

2 

3 



24 

12 

3 

4 

8 

6 

16 

24 

2 

3 



24 

12 

3 

4 

8 

6 







24 

14 

3 

4 

10 

8 

18 

5 

2 

3 

34 

2 

24 

14 

3 

4 

10 

8 

18 

8 

2 

3 

6 

4 

24 

15 

3 

4 

10 

8 

18 

9 

2 

3 

6 

4 

24 

18 

3 

4 



18 

10 

2 

3 

8 

6 

24 

20 

3 

4 



18 

10 

2 

3 

8 

6 

24 

24 

3 

4 



18 

10 

2 

3 

8 

6 

24 

30 

3 

4 



18 

12 

2 

3 

8 

6 







18 

12 

2 

3 

8 

6 

30 

10 

4 

6 

8 

6 

18 

12 

2 

3 

8 

6 ' 

30 

12 

4 

6 

8 

6 

18 

14 

2 

3 

8 

6 

30 

14 

4 

6 

10 

8 

18 

14 

2 

3 

10 

8 

30 

14 

4 

6 

12 

10 

18 

14 

2 

3 

10 

8 

30 

16 

4 

6 

14 

12 

18 

15 

2 

3 

10 

8 

30 

16 

4 

6 

14 

12 

18 

15 

2 

3 

10 

8 

30 

18 

4 

6 



18 

18 

2 

3 



30 

24 

4 

6 




21 * 












































246 


HAND-BOOK OF MODERN STEAM FIRE-ENGINES, 



































































































































































































































HAND-BOOK OF MODERN STEAM FIRE-ENGINES. 247 


THE KNOWLES’ STEAM FIRE-PUMP. 

The cuton opposite page represents the Knowles’Steam 

Fire-Pump, lhe steam-cylinders are fitted with spring 
packing, which is so arranged as to be easy of adjustment. 
The water-cylinders are also fitted with composition heads 
and adjustable rings. The main steam-valve is an ordi¬ 
nary flat slide-valve, and the slight rotary motion given the 
valve-rod simply puts the valve in a position to be driven 
horizontally on its seat. This style of flat valve embodies 
the most favorable possible condition for tightness, even 
after the wear consequent upon long use. Owing to the 
peculiar motion of this description of steam-valve, the 
pumps will start at a moment’s notice, by simply opening 
the steam-valve; and when running at the highest speed, 
or when the pressure is suddenly removed, the piston can 
never strike the cylinder-heads. Another peculiarity of 
this pump is, that it can be used for any ordinary work, 
and still have the hose always attached to it ready for 
use, and can be run so slow as to be used as a boiler- 
feeder, or at great speed as a fire-pump. The Knowles’ 
steam-pumps are built of the best material and fitted in 
the most thorough manner — the joints are all ground, and 
require no packing, and, as the parts are all interchange¬ 
able, they can, in case of wear or accident, be supplied at 
short notice. The reputation of the Knowles’ steam-pump 
stands deservedly high for durability, efficiency, and 
economy. They are manufactured of all desirable sizes, 
and arranged for an almost endless variety of purposes. 

Rule for finding the Diameter of Pump-plunger for any 
Engine. —When the pump-stroke is J the stroke of the 
engine, the diameter of the steam-cylinder multiplied by 
0.3 will give the proper diameter of pump-plunger. 

Another Rule. —When the pump-stroke is | the stroke 




248 HAND-BOOK OF MODERN STEAM FIRE-ENGINES. 

of the engine, the diameter of the cylinder multiplied by 
.42 will give the proper diameter of pump-plunger. 

Diameter of pump-plunger should he equal to ^ the 
diameter of the cylinder, when the pump-stroke is ^ the 
engine-stroke. 

Diameter of pump-plunger should be equal to ^ of the 
diameter of the cylinder, when the pump-stroke is \ the 
engine-stroke. The velocity of water in pump passages 
should not exceed 500 feet per minute. Pump-valves 
should have an area of \ the area of the pump. 

Feed-pumps for Condensing Engines .—For condensing 
engines, the diameter of the pump-plunger should equal 
1.11 the diameter of the steam-cylinder, when the pump- 
stroke is 4 the engine-stroke, and | the diameter of steam- 
cylinder, when the pump-stroke is \ the stroke of the engine. 

Rule for finding the Necessary Quantity of Water per 
Minute for any Engine. —Multiply the cubic space in cyl¬ 
inder in inches, to which steam is admitted before being 
cut off, by twice the number of revolutions per minute, 
and divide the product by the comparative bulk of steam* 
at the pressure used; the quotient will be the cubic inches 
of water required per minute. 


EXAMPLE. 

Diameter of cylinder, 12 inches. Area. 113.09 sq. in. 

Stroke, 24 in. Steam cut-off at J stroke. 12 in. 

Revolutions per minute. GO 

Pressure per sq. in., 70 lbs. Cubic in. steam from 1 

to f cu. in. water. 408 

113.09 
_12 

1357.08 
_ 120 

408)162849.60 


399.14 cubic inches of water. 
* See Table on pages 338, 339. 









HAND-BOOK OF MODERN STEAM FIRE-ENGINES. 


249 


This Rule takes into account the expenditure of steam 

only; but, as it is well known in practice that a large 
quantity of water passes from the boiler to the cylinder 
in mechanical combination with the steam, allowance 
must be made for such losses, also for the waste incurred 
by clearance in the cylinder, cubic contents of steam-ports, 
condensation, etc., so that in the selection of a pump for 
:.ny engine, it is advisable that it should be of sufficient 
capacity to furnish at least twice the quantity of water 
designated by the rule. 

Pumps too large or too small are not as economical as 
those that are well proportioned to their work; neverthe¬ 
less, in ordering or purchasing a pump, it is always better 
to err on the side of too much capacity than too little. 
All boiler feed-pumps, when working at ordinary speed, 
should be capable of discharging one cubic foot of water 
per horse-power per hour. 

Parties ordering pumps should always embody the fol¬ 
lowing information in their orders, as a neglect to do so 
is frequently attended with a great deal of dissatisfaction 
and disappointment both to manufacturers and purchasers: 

Whether the pump is for hot or cold water. 

For high or low pressure. 

The steam pressure to be used. 

From what height the water is to be lifted by suction. 

The length of the suction-pipe. 

Against what pressure or to what height the water is to 
be forced. 

The greatest quantity of water that will ever be needed 
in a given time. 








Ml"" 


250 


HAND-BOOK OF MODERN STEAM FIRE-ENGINES, 
































































































































































































































HAND-BOOK OF MODERN STEAM FIRE-ENGINES. 251 


EARLE’S STEAM FIRE-PUMP. 

In the cut on the opposite page is shown Earle’s Steam 
Fire-Pump, manufactured by the Norwalk Iron-Works 
Co., Norwalk, Comi. From its general appearance it will 
be seen that the arrangement of the parts is such as to 
insure ease of management, and that the interior parts — 
the valves, plungers, etc.,— are all easily accessible. The 
valve-seats are made of gun-metal, and, being fitted to 
gauges, and turned tapering and driven into the pump, 
can easily be removed either for renewal or repairs. The 
pumping-barrel is a composition tube, bearing at its ends 
upon collars turned in the main casting, which serve as 
guides to hold it central, and is held securely in its posi¬ 
tion by the piston-rod stuffing-box screwing into one end, 
and drawing the tube or bushing against a shoulder at the 
other end, thus making it perfectly tight, firm, and solid. 
This forms the pumping-cylinder. 

When the bushing becomes excessively worn, it is the 
work of but a moment to unscrew the stuffing-box,—which, 
being of gun-metal, cannot rust in the thread,—take out the 
bushing, replace it immediately with another, and re-bore 
it at leisure. The introduction of a water-cylinder, which 
can be introduced with little delay, is a practical remedy 
in case of worn or cut cylinders. As the collars in the 
pump and on the bushing are all accurately fitted to 
gauges, no pipe connections need be disturbed, and no 
delay experienced in making the adjustment. 

Fop Earle’s Steam-pumps are claimed simplicity, du¬ 
rability, and efficiency; they are adapted to any or all 
the purposes for which steam-pumps are used, and are 
manufactured in sizes varying from 32 inch steam-cyl¬ 
inder, 2 in. w T ater-cylinder, up to 30 in. steam-cylinder, 20 
in. water-cylinder. 

i 













252 HAND-BOOK OF MODERN STEAM FIRE-ENGINES. 


DIRECTIONS FOR SETTING UP STEAM-PUMPS. 

Never place a pump further than 25 feet from the 
water-level, as the nearer the pump-valve is to the surface 
of the water, the more rapidly the pump will discharge. 

Pipes fully as large as the pump connections should be 
used in all cases, and, where it becomes necessary to use 
long or crooked pipes, they should be even larger. 

The suction-pipe is the most important of all the pipes 
to a pump, since, if this does not perform its duty, and 
furnish water in sufficient quantity to fill the cylinder as 
fast as the water-piston travels, no matter how well the 
other pipes are arranged, the result will be unsatisfactory; 
hence the great necessity of keeping this pipe in good order. 

The suction-pipe should always be as short and direct 
as possible, and, if the lift is high, it should have a check- 
valve at its lower end. It should also have a strainer on 
the end, of about twice the area of the pipe, and, where 
it becomes necessary to use a valve in this pipe, it should 
be one with a round water-wav, like the “ Peet ” or “ Lud- 
low,” as ordinary globe-valves or stop-cocks diminish the 
supply of water. 

It requires four times the force to deliver a given quan¬ 
tity of water through a pipe 200 feet long, that it would 
require to deliver the same quantity through a pipe one 
diameter of the same pipe in length ; hence the necessity 
of using pipes of larger diameters when the supply is 
distant from the pump. 

Leaks in the suction-pipes of pumps should be carefully 
guarded against, as a very small leak will destroy the 
efficiency of a good pump. 

Short bends and angles in pump-pipes should be avoided 
as much as possible, as they retard the flow of the water; 


HAND-BOOK OF MODERN STEAM FIRE-ENGINES. 253 


but when they must necessarily be used, they should be 
as large as practicable. 

The same rules that govern the proportions of suction- 
pipes apply also to those of discharge-pipes. It is a very 
general impression among persons not acquainted with this 
subject, that if the discharge runs perpendicularly from 
the pump, it should be small, in order to diminish the 
weight of the column of water resting on it. This is a mis¬ 
take, as the pressure on a pump-piston, from a vertical 
column of water one inch in area, would be about as much 
as if it was two; while a two-inch pipe would have four 
times the delivering capacity of the one-inch pipe, and 
therefore much less friction. 

Discharge-pipes should be of a uniform diameter 
throughout, as any reduction in the diameter of a pipe 
greatly diminishes its capacity. A steam-pipe of the size 
which a pump calls for, is generally large enough for the 
fastest running pumps, but in cases where it is extremely 
long, a pipe one size larger might be advisable. It should 
also be protected by some good non-conductor or covering. 

The exhaust-pipe should be the full size the pump calls 
for, and, where it is possible, should be run down, in order 
to allow the water of condensation to flow out. 

When pumping hot water, pumps may be made to work 
smoothly by connecting a stand-pipe, open at one end, to 
the supply-pipe, near the pump, and running the open 
end up a little above the supply ; the raising and lowering 
of the water in this pipe at each stroke, will relieve the 
pump, and also admit of an easy escape of the steam 
rising from the hot water. 

The pipes of all pumps located in exposed situations, 

should be furnished with unions, in order that they may 
be separated from them in extremely cold weather. 

22 




254 


HAND-BOOK OF MODERN STEAM FIRE-ENGINES, 












































































































































































HAND-BOOK OF MODERN STEAM FIRE-ENGINES. 255 


THE ATLAS STEAM FIRE-PUMP. 

The cut on the opposite page represents the Atlas 
Steam Fire-pump, which is especially adapted for fire, 
marine, mining, tanning, and wrecking purposes; or, in 
fact, for any place where it is desirable to displace large 
quantities of water in a short time, such as filling tanks 
and reservoirs, draining mines or quarries, or freeing the 
holds of vessels from water in case of leakage, etc. 

It is a double, direct-acting pump ; in its construction 
the common slide-valve is used, and operated by a peculiar 
rocker and cam motion, which is so constructed that it is 
impossible for it to stop on the dead-centre, since, as soon 
as the motive power is admitted to the cylinder (whether 
steam, water or air pressure), the pump begins to operate, 
and it is impossible to place the valve in such a position 
as to shut off* steam and stop the pump. By a peculiar 
arrangement for moving the steam-valve, a full stroke is 
insured, but at the same time, by means of a guide to the 
valve motion, the stroke is slowed down, thus giving the 
water-cylinder time to fill, insuring a full stream every 
time, and preventing the plunger or water-piston from 
cushioning against the water when the cylinder is but 
partly filled. The water-valves are made especially for 
the work which the pump is required to do, and are gen¬ 
erally constructed of gun-metal, or of such other material 
as is least affected by the liquid passing through them. 
The openings are straight and clean, without small oi 
intricate passages to be filled up with sediment or dirt. 

Among the most valuable features of this pump are its 
great simplicity, durability, and effectiveness. They are 
manufactured by Smith, Vaile & Co., Dayton, Ohio. 








CONDE’S CHALLENGE STEAM FIRE-PUMP. 


256 


HAND-BOOK OF MODERN STEAM FIRE-ENGINES 
































































HAND-BOOK OF MODERN STEAM FIRE-ENGINE8. 257 


CONDE’S CHALLENGE STEAM FIRE-PUMP. 

The cut on the opposite page represents Conde’s 
Challenge Steam Fire-pump, manufactured by C. A. 
Conde and Co., Philadelphia, the peculiar advantages of 
which consist in doing away with all outside arrange¬ 
ments for operating the valves ; that the steam-cylinder is 
brought into such close connection with the pump as to 
give it a very compact form, and that the working parts 
are so few and simple, as to render them not at all liable 
to any disarrangement. The steam-cylinder is made open 
at both ends, which admits of an easy adjustment; while 
the valve-chamber is fitted to it by a ground joint, and 
can be removed at any time without interfering with the 
steam-pipe connections, as they enter the cylinder casting 
below it. 

The steam-valve consists of a slide-valve and a plunger, 
which throws the valve by the action of the exhaust steam. 
By this arrangement the cylinder is relieved from all 
pressure before the plunger reaches the end of its stroke^ 
the pressure on the slide-valve checking it. The valve 
has a variable throw in proportion to the work to be done 
by the pump. The water-cylinder and valve-chamber are 
cast in one piece ; the water-valves are of a very convenient 
form, and can be removed from their seats for cleaning, 
inspection, or renewal, without taking off*any bonnet, and 
be replaced in a very few minutes. 

The Challenge Pump is in very general use, and gives 
entire satisfaction. It is exceedingly well adapted to the 
purpose of extinguishing fires, as it will start at any point 
of the stroke when the steam is turned on, can be run at 
a very high speed, and is capable of displacing a large 
volume of water in a short space of time. 

22* R, 



258 HAND-BOOK OF MODERN STEAM FIRE-ENGINES. 



HOLLY’S ROTARY STEAM FIRE-PUMP. 

The above cut represents Holly’s Rotary Steam Fire- 

Pump, manufactured by the Silsby Manufacturing Co., 
Seneca Falls, N. Y. In the working parts of this pump, 
valves and packing are dispensed with. The cams on 
the piston are packed by the simple action of the water 
forced into grooves planed into their ends for that 
purpose. The water enters the case at the bottom 
through the suction-pipe; the stream then divides and fills 
the chambers made by the long cams on each side, and 
inside of the case, passing round and discharging at 
the top. It is claimed that by this arrangement the suc¬ 
tion is more perfect than can be obtained in piston-pumps, 




























































































































































HAND-BOOK OF MODERN STEAM FIRE-ENGINES. 259 


as the instant the pump starts, it begins to exhaust the air 
in the suction-pipes, and will continue to do so as long as 
any remains in the pipe, provided the suction is not so 
long that the air cannot be exhausted by any pump. It 
is also claimed that these pumps will not clog, as any sub¬ 
stance taken in with the water will pass through and be 
discharged, without in any way interfering with the pump; 
moreover, as the cams do not rub against the inside of the 
case, there is very little friction to overcome, consequently 
the pump is capable of developing great power. 

Atari early period in the history of machines for raising 
water, it became a desideratum, with engineers, to obtain a 
continuous rotary movement of the piston-rod in place of 
the ordinary rectilinear and reciprocating one, in order 
that the walking-beam, crank, connecting-rod, or fly-wheel 
might be reduced or abandoned, and the power saved that 
was consumed in overcoming their inertia and friction at 
every stroke of the piston. Reasoning analogous to this 
had long before led some old mechanicians to convert the 
motion of the common pump-rod into a circular one; in 
other words, to invent rotary pumps. By this, the power 
expended in constantly bringing all the water in the cyl¬ 
inder and suction-pipe alternately to a state of rest and 
motion, was saved, as the liquid is kept in constant motion 
in passing through them. 

The Holly Rotary Pumps are in very general use as 
fire-pumps, and have the reputation of being very efficient, 
as they can be run either slow or fast, and are capable of 
displacing a great quantity of water in a short time — the 
quantity being in proportion to the number of revolutions 
made by the pump. They are also very reliable, as they 
will always start when the steam is turned on. The man¬ 
drils are made of the best cast-steel, which renders them 
very strong, durable, and not liable to wear. 


260 HAND-BOOK OF MODERN STEAM FIRE-ENGINES, 



PROPER METHOD OF LOCATING STEAM FIRE- 

PUMPS* 

The above cut illustrates the proper method of lo¬ 
cating steam fire-pumps for the protection of factories, 
hotels, railroad depots, warehouses, or, in fact, any kind 
of property exposed to the ravages of fire. Such a build¬ 
ing as shown in the cut may be constructed of brick, with 
corrugated iron roof, and iron doors on different sides, at 
a very trifling expense. With an efficient steam-pump 

* See page 36. 






































































































HAND-BOOK OF MODERN STEAM FIRE-ENGINES. 261 


located in such a building, and one or two lines of hose, 
almost any fire might be held in check by the employees 
of a hotel or factory, until some more powerful and effi¬ 
cient means might be brought into play. But independent 
fire-pumps, to be capable of rendering efficient service in 
emergencies, should be kept continually under steam, and 
be frequently tried, for the purpose of ascertaining if 
everything is in good working order. A good independent 
steam fire-pump, when judiciously located, thoroughly 
cared for, and well managed, can always be relied upon 
as a means of averting the devastating effects of fire, and 
consequently tend to lessen the rates of insurance on 
property. 


THE INJECTOR. 

Of all the inventions of the mechanic and the scientist, 

none seemed to the uneducated to approximate so nearly 
to perpetual motion as the instrument now in general use 
as a boiler-feeder on locomotives and stationary engines, 
and known as the injector, and which, from common use, 
no longer excites the wonder even of those who do not 
understand its mode of operation. 

It consists of a slender tube, called the steam-tube, 
through which steam from the boiler passes to another 
or inner tube, called the receiving-tube. The latter tube 
conducts a current of water from a pipe into the body of 
the injector. Opposite the mouth of this second tube, and 
detached from it, is a third fixed tube, called the delivery- 
tube. This tube is open at the end facing the water-sup¬ 
ply, and leads from the injector to the boiler. The ac¬ 
tion of the injector is that which Venturi, in the beginning 
of the present century, designated as the “ lateral action 
of fluids,” and, having been investigated by Dr. Young, 



262 HAND-BOOK OF MODERN STEAM FIRE-ENGINES. 

in 1805, was proposed by Nicholson, in 1806, for forcing 
water. The action is identical with that of the steam-jet, 
or blower-pipe, in the chimney of the locomotive. The 
principle is, that steam, being admitted to the inner tube 
of the injector, enters the mouth of a combining tube, in 
the form of a jet, near the top of the inlet water-pipe. II 
the level of the water be below the injector, the escaping 
jet of steam, by its superficial action (or friction) upon 
the air around it, forms a partial vacuum in the combining 
tube and inlet-pipe, and the water then rises in virtue of 
the external pressure of the atmosphere. Once risen to 
the jet, the water is acted upon by the steam in the same 
manner as the air had been acted upon in first forming 
the partial vacuum into which the water rose. 

Giffard’s discovery was that the motion imparted by a 
jet of steam to a surrounding column of water was suffi¬ 
cient to force it into the boiler from which the steam was 
taken, and, indeed, into a boiler working at even a higher 
pressure. But the most important improvement ever 
heretofore made in the injector was made in 1868, by 
Samuel Hue, by which the injector, with steam of from 80 
to 90 pounds pressure, is capable of forcing water against 
a pressure of from 400 to 450 pounds per square inch. 

This extraordinary accumulation of power may be ex¬ 
plained as follows: The velocity with which steam — say 
at 60 pounds pressure to the square inch — flows into the 
atmosphere is about 1700 feet per second. Now suppose 
that steam is issuing, with the full velocity due to the 
pressure in the boiler, through a pipe one inch in area, the 
steam is condensed into water, at the nozzle of the injector, 
without suffering any change in its velocity. From this 
cause its bulk will be reduced, say 1000, and, therefore, 
its area of cross-section — the velocity being constant — 
will experience a similar reduction. It will then be able 


HAND-BOOK OF MODERN STEAM FIRE-ENGINES. 263 



Rue's “Little Giant” Injector Letter “B.” 


to enter the boiler again by an orifice y^^th part oh that 
by which it escaped. Now it will be seen that the total 
force expended by the steam through the pipe, on the area 
of an inch, in expelling the steam-jet, was concentrated 
upon the area y^yj^th of an inch, and, therefore, was 
greatly superior to the opposing pressure exerted upon the 
diminished area. As the Rue Injector is now successfully 
employed as a boiler-feeder on the Pennsylvania Line of 
Steamships, and as it is the only injector that can be used 
on ocean steamers, river boats, tug-boats, ferries, and 
pleasure-yachts, a description of the method of its adjust¬ 
ment and working will be of interest to engineers. 

How to put on Letter “ B” Injector. —Put the injector 
in a horizontal position above the foot-board, and within 
easy reach of the engineer, using as short a length of 
pipe for “steam” and “deliverance to the boiler’’ as possi¬ 
ble. Put an ordinary globe or angle-valve on the steam 
supply-pipe for starting, etc., taking the steam from the 
highest part of the boiler, and attaching it to the swivel 
marked “steam.” Attach the water supply-pipe to the 

















2<14 HAND-BOOK OF MODERN STEAM FIRE-ENGINES. 

swivel marked “water,” putting an ordinary water-cock 
on the supply-pipe near the injector. A good supply 
of water must be had, and, if taken from a tank, given a 
good fall. The mouth of the pipe should be enlarged, 
and a screen with small meshes placed over it to keep out 
dirt; if the supply-pipe be over ten feet in length, or if 
the water come from a hydrant, or any source that makes 
a pressure, and the supply is not at a regular pressure, 
the pipe should be one size larger than the swivel marked 
“water,” which can be done by putting on a reducer. At 
this point turn on your steam and water, and let them 
flow through the injector, to see if the pipes and injectors 
are free from dirt. Then attach the “ delivery-pipe ” to 
the swivel marked “ to boiler.” 

Method of Working Letter “ B ” Injector. — Turn on 
the water, and, when it flows from the overflow, turn on 
the steam, slowly at first, until it catches the water; then 
turn on full head, and push the lever M slowly either for¬ 
wards or backwards, as seems requisite, until neither steam 
nor water shows at the overflow. Failure to work will 
always show at the overflow, and when the point is ascer¬ 
tained at which the lever is to be set for the steam press¬ 
ure to be carried, it can be regulated, and then left to 
stand at that position when the steam and water are shut 
off. The lever is only used to regulate the proportionate 
amounts of water and steam. But when water is to be 
lifted by this injector, as on steamships, a small steam-pipe 
leading from the boiler, and furnished with a valve that 
opens with a quick motion, is attached to the swivel “ P,” 
by means of which a steam-jet is thrown into the tube 
“ R,” and the water lifted. But at this point it is neces¬ 
sary to examine the tube in order to ascertain if the suc¬ 
tion is good, or if the water rises readily, and if so, the 
steam supply-pipe can be attached to the swivel marked 


HAND-BOOK OF MODERN STEAM FIRE-ENGINES. 265 


“steam,” and the injector cleared of any dirt that may 
have collected in the boiler-pipes; then the delivery-pipe 
to the boiler may be attached to the swivel marked “ to 
boiler.” Great care should be taken to see that the sup- 
ply-pipe, through which the water is lifted, is perfectly air¬ 
tight, as any leak in the pipe will interfere with the work¬ 
ing of the injector. 

In ordering injectors, it should always be stated whether 
the connecting-pipes are copper, brass, or iron, and whether 
for steamships or stationary boilers. 


TABLE 

OF CAPACITIES OF RUE’S “LITTLE GIANT ” INJECTOR. 


Size of 
Injectors. 

Size of Pipe 
Connections. 

Pressure of 
Steam 
in Pounds. 

Gallons 
per Hour. 

Nominal 

Horse-Power. 

0 

I 

90 

60 

4 to 8 

1 

I 

90 

90 

6 “ 12 

2 

i 

90 

120 

8 “ 20 

3 

H 

4 

90 

300 

20 “ 40 

4 


90 

600 

40 “ 80 

5 

U 

90 

900 

60 “ 120 

6 

li 

90 

1200 

80 “ 160 

7 

H 

90 

1620 

140 “ 225 

8 

2 

90 

2040 

200 “ 275 

9 

2 

90 

2480 

250 “ 350 

10 

2 

90 

3000 

300 “ 400 

12 


90 

3600 

350 “ 500 


The Injector is very desirable as a boiler-feeder for 
steam fire-engines ; but the great obstacle in the w^ay of' its 
successful employment is, that nearly all that class of 
machines work wet steam, which, of course, is the result 
of a small steam space, and the rapid flow of the steam 
from the boiler to the cylinder. 

23 
























266 HAND-BOOK OF MODERN STEAM FIRE-ENGINES. 



THE PULSOMETER. 

The cut on this page represents the Pulsometer. The 

conditions upon which the proper action of the pulsometer 
depends are similar, in all essential particulars, to those 
which pertain to the management of the ordinary double¬ 
acting piston-pump. But, although the pulsometer may be 

























































HAND-BOOK OF MODERN STEAM FIRE-ENGINES. 267 


operated under the same conditions as control the opera¬ 
tion of piston-pumps, the arrangements should be made 
with judgment and discretion, to meet the characteristic 
difference existing between the two systems, and with spe¬ 
cial reference to the nature of the fluid to be pumped. 

The pulsometer requires a free current of the fluid in 
an uninterrupted stream, as a necessary condition of its 
action. If the source of supply of the liquid be exhausted, 
or the induction passage is contracted so as to prevent its 
free admission in response to the vacuum impulses alter¬ 
nately created in the chambers above, the steam will blow 
through the discharge-pipe, and the pulsation will cease. 

The pulsometer is peculiarly adapted for pumping water 
from mines, foundations, or excavations where quicksand 
or mud occur, as it will pump water combined with fifty 
per cent, of mud or sand without any derangement of its 
parts, as there is no cylinder, piston, or valves to cut or 
wear. It can also be used to irrigate land and drain 
swamps and ponds. It is also available as a bilge-pump 
on board ship, as it is not liable to become choked with 
grain or other substances. The pulsometer will raise 
water or any other liquid from a depth due to the vacuum 
produced by the condensation of steam, and will force the 
same to an elevation due to the initial pressure of the 
steam in the boiler operating it. 

The pulsometer possesses some advantages in point of 
convenience, as it can be lowered into deep wells or min¬ 
ing-shafts, and, in fact, set or hung up in any place most 
convenient to the work or the steam ; but it is less reliable 
in its action than the pump, and is very wasteful of steam. 

THE HYDRAULIC RAM. 

One of the most common methods of raising water by 

power is the so-called hydraulic ram ; its effectiveness and 


i 





2G8 HAND-BOOK OF MODERN STEAM FIRE-ENGINES. 

economy, together with the fact that it is applicable in 
thousands of situations now without any means of raising 
water, render a better knowledge of its operation ex¬ 
tremely desirable. The hydraulic ram is decidedly the 
most important and valuable apparatus yet developed in 
hydraulics, for forcing a portion of a running stream of 
water to any elevation proportionate to the fall obtained. 

It is perfectly applicable where no more than 18 inches 
fall can be had; yet the greater the fall applied, the 
more powerful the operation of the machine, and the 
higher the water may be conveyed. The relative propor¬ 
tions between the water raised and wasted are dependent 
entirely upon the relative height of the source of supply 
above the ram, and the elevation to which it is required 
to be raised — the quantity raised varying in proportion 
to the height to which it is conveyed, with a given fall. 
The distance which the water has to be conveyed, and 
consequent length of pipe, has some bearing on the quan¬ 
tity of water raised and discharged by the ram; as the 
longer the pipe through which the water has to be 
forced by the machine, the greater the friction to be over¬ 
come, and the greater the power consumed in the opera¬ 
tion. 

Yet it is a common thing to apply the ram for convey¬ 
ing water distances of from one to two hundred rods, and 
up elevations of from one to two hundred feet. Ten feet 
fall from the spring or brook to the ram is abundantly 
sufficient for forcing water up to any elevation under, say, 
one hundred and fifty feet in height above the level of the 
point where the ram is located ; and the same ten feet fall 
will raise water to a much higher point than that, although 
in a diminished quantity, in proportion as the height is in¬ 
creased. 

When a sufficient quantity of water is raised with a 


HAND-BOOK OF MODERN STEAM FTRE-ENGINES. 269 


given fall, it is not advisable to increase said fall, as, in so 
doing, the force with which the ram works is increased, 
and the amount of labor which it has to perform greatly 
augmented ; the wear and tear of the machine are propor¬ 
tionately increased and its durability lessened, so that 
economy, in the expense of keeping the ram in repair, 
would dictate that no greater fall should be applied for 
propelling it than is sufficient to raise a requisite supply 
of water. 

To enable any person to estimate what fall would be 
sufficient to apply to the ram to raise a sufficient supply 
of water, it may be safely calculated that about one- 
seventh part of the water can be raised and discharged at 
such an elevation above the ram as is five times the 
height of the fall which is applied to the ram ; or one- 
fourteenth part can be raised and discharged ten times as 
high as the fall applied; and so on in the same propor¬ 
tion according as the fall or the rise is varied. 

Thus, if the ram be placed under a head or fall of five 
feet, for every 7 gallons drawn one may be raised 25 feet, 
or half a gallon 50 feet. Or with 10 feet fall applied to 
the machine, of every 14 gallons drawn from the spring, 
1 gallon may be raised to the height of 100 feet above 
the machine; and so on in like proportions, as the fall oi 
rise is increased or diminished. 

23 * 




270 


HAND HOOK OF MODERN STEAM FIIIE-ENGINES. 



CLAPP & JONES’ VERTICAL CIRCULATING TUBULAR BOILER. 
Description on Page 57. 
















































































HAND-BOOK OF MODERN STEAM FIRE-ENGINES. 271 


BOILERS OF STEAM FIRE-ENGINES. 

The vertical tubular boiler is the form most generally 
used for fire-engines; not that it possesses any advantages 
in raising or keeping up steam, or in economy of fuel, but 
simply because it occupies less space, admits, when prop¬ 
erly designed, of a great power being obtained, with great 
strength, in a very small space, and is better adapted for 
that particular purpose than any other type of boiler now 
in use. In the design of such boilers, it is necessary to 
provide a very large amount of heating surface, which, of 
course, must limit the water space; consequently, as they 
are intended to raise steam very ra pidly, as well as sustain 
high pressures, they should be scientifically designed, 
carefully constructed, and none bjit the best description 
of materials employed in their construction. 

The boilers of steam fire-engines should be so designed, 
as to insure the most complete and perfect circulation of the 
water, so that the steam formed by the contact of the water 
with the heated surfaces may escape into the steam-room of 
the boiler, and allow its place to be taken by a fresh supply 
of water, as a defective circulation of the water causes an 
imperfect generation of steam, which induces an over¬ 
heating o£ different parts of the boiler, and hastens its 
destruction. Rapidity of evaporation depends upon rap¬ 
idity of circulation; as heat is conducted with great rap¬ 
idity through metals, provided that the inner surfaces are 
kept constantly in contact with the water to be evaporated, 
and not with a non-conductor composed of over-heated 
water or steam. 

Experience has shown that where it becomes necessary 
to contract the water space in a boiler, for the purpose of 
raising steam quickly, such arrangements have a tendency 
to induce other evils, as it causes an irregularity of action 







272 HAND-BOOK OF MODERN STEAM FIRE-ENGINES. 

in the boilers, such as unsteadiness of maintaining steam 
at the necessary pressure, and water at the ordinary level, 
which necessitates greater care and skill on the part of 
the attendants than need be devoted to boilers of more 
liberal and uniform proportions. It is very important in 
subdividing, as far as possible, the heat generated by the 
fuel, by the heating surface for evaporating the water, that 
this should be done without impeding the easy circulation 
of the water over this heating surface, otherwise, the du¬ 
rability and efficiency of the boiler are easily and quickly 
destroyed. 

In order to obtain this with the greatest certainty and 
rapidity, it is of the first importance to secure the rapid 
and constant replacement, in contact with the highly 
heated surfaces, of an equal body of water at a lower 
temperature, to take the place of that which has passed 
off in a state of steam at a high temperature. This, it 
will be seen, can only be obtained in a ready and simple 
manner, by securing the most complete circulation of the 
water in the boiler, over and in contact with all the heated 
surfaces. The boilers of steam fire-engines are designed 
on different plans; but the great and paramount object 
which seems to be sought for in all, is a rapid and steady 
production of steam, with a maximum of strength and a 
minimum of weight. 

The boilers of fire-engines, like those of locomotives, 
are subjected to many severe shocks and strains,—chief 
among which are the pressure of the steam, the jarring 
of the machine when driven over unequal surfaces, the 
unequal expansion and contraction of the plates, induced 
by excessive heat, defective design, or the pumping in of 
cold water when the iron is expanded to its utmost limits; 
all these strains combined affect the several parts of the 
boiler, the intense heat rendering the part on which it acts 
crystalline, or liable to fracture. The jar and strains have 





HAND-BOOK OF MODERN STEAM FIRE-ENGINES. 273 


a tendency to loosen the rivets, and weaken the whole 
structure. Consequently, the boiler of a fire-engine must 
evidently possess other features of strength than those re¬ 
quired in an ordinary steam generator, as there are un¬ 
avoidable connections and attachments to be made here 
and there, which can only be maintained under superior 
stability of parts; however strong and independent the 
framework of a nre-engiue may be, the simple holding of 
it in its place by the boiler necessitates considerable extra 
stiffness. 

Regarding the boiler of a steam fire-engine as a cyl¬ 
inder with fiat ends, the strain is necessarily greatest on 
the longitudinal seams, and less on the curvilinear; there¬ 
fore the former should, in all cases, be double riveted; 
while the latter, having to bear only one half the strain, 
is proportionately stronger in respect to strains arising 
from steam pressure with single rivets, than the longitudi¬ 
nal is with double rivets. 

It is extremely desirable that boilers which evaporate 
water with great rapidity and contain but a small quan¬ 
tity, such as the boilers of steam fire-engines, should be 
provided with different means of replenishing it, so that 
in case of accident to any one of them, the other might be 
available, thus preventing the necessity of drawing fire, 
and thereby diminishing the risk of burning or injuring 
the boiler. Reliability, simplicity, efficiency, freedom 
from derangement, and great facility in remedying defects, 
are most important points to be secured in the feed appa¬ 
ratus attached to the boilers of steam fire-engines. 

All boilers of small size, where a large amount of water 
is evaporated at a high temperature in a short space of 
time, naturally require frequent blowing off 1 , in order to 
get rid of the solid matter and deposit contained in the 
water, which remains in the boiler when the water is 

8 







274 HAND-BOOK OF MODERN STEAM FIRE-ENGINES. 

evaporated. It is highly important that this should be 
carefully attended to, especially if the boiler is kept con¬ 
tinuously at work. If this is properly done, all the de¬ 
posit and residuary matter which would harden in the 
interior, will be got rid of, and prevented from forming 
an incrustation or scale in the boiler, thus obviating the 
trouble and expense of removing the tubes for the purpose 
of cleaning the crown- or tube-sheet directly over the fire, 
which very often has to be done in consequence of the 
accumulation of deposit on its upper side. But no boiler 
should ever be blown out under steam pressure, or while 
hot, as the heat of the iron, after the water is all out, soon 
dries and hardens the scale on its surface, thereby forming 
a coating which is impervious to water, thus rendering the 
parts of the boiler exposed to the action of the fire liable 
to become crystallized and burned. 

toilers should be allowed to stand for several hours 
after being used, before the water is run out; by this 
course the deposit on the parts of the boiler most exposed 
to the action of the fire, may be kept soft and porous for 
years, which obviates the danger of burning the boiler; 
nor should they ever be filled with cold water while hot, 
as this has a very injurious effect on the different parts, 
causing severe contraction of the seams, braces, and tubes, 
which frequently results in fracture and leakage, and 
eventually in the destruction of the boiler. Many boilers 
well designed, well constructed, and of good material, have 
been ruined while-yet new through ignorance and injudi¬ 
cious management. 

In all boilers with small and contracted water spaces, 
like those of fire-engines, some solvent should be used for 
the purpose of keeping the scale or deposit in a plastic 
state, until such time as it can be removed; but the char¬ 
acter of the solvent should be thoroughly understood, as, 


HAND-BOOK OF MODERN STEAM FIRE-ENGINES. 275 

if it contains acid of any kind, it is liable to do more 
harm than good. Lord’s Boiler Compound has been used 
for several years in thousands of boilers of every descrip¬ 
tion, and under very varying circumstances, and in all 
cases with the most satisfactory results. It removes old 
scale, prevents the formation of new, and chemical analy¬ 
sis has shown that it contains no acid whatever. 

Any boiler, if left too long without cleaning, especially 
if muddy water be used, is liable to foam, which is in¬ 
variably attended by serious results, detrimental both to 
the steam-cylinder and the boiler, as, during the process of 
foaming, the water is lifted from the surface of the plates, 
rendering the iron liable to become overheated, which 
frequently results in the bulging or cracking of the parts 
most exposed to the direct action of the fire. The mud 
and grit which are disturbed by the agitation of the water 
induced by the foaming, pass into the cylinder, and flutes 
both the cylinder, the rings, and rod, which causes them 
to leak, involving the necessity of expensive repairs. 

CAUSES OF FOAMING IN STEAM-BOILERS. 

A boiler foams or primes, either because it has insuffi¬ 
cient steam room, or on account of dirt or grease in the 
boiler or the feed-water. The trouble is often experienced 
with new boilers, and disappears when they become clean. 
Priming is dangerous, if much water is carried over with 
the steam, as it is difficult to maintain a constant water 
level, and the engine is liable to be broken by the water 
in the cylinders. If the trouble is caused by insufficient 
steam room, it may sometimes be partially overcome by 
increasing the steam pressure, and throttling it down to 
the ordinary working pressure in the cylinder; but the 
only effectual mode is to provide more steam room. If 




276 HAND-BOOK OF MODERN STEAM FIRE-ENGINES, 



SECTIONAL VIEW OF THE LATTA STEAM BOILER, described on page 47 

















































































































































HAND-BOOK OF MODERN STEAM FIRE-ENGINES. 277 





TOP VIEW OF THE LATTA STEAM BOILER. 




BOTTOM VIEW OF THE LATTA STEAM BOILER. 



24* 






































































278 HAND-BOOK OF MODERN STEAM FIRE-ENGINES. 

the priming is due to dirt or grease in the boiler, the en¬ 
gineer should blow off frequently, and clean the boiler 
every few days. In blowing off*, it is well to raise the 
water level in the boiler, by putting on a strong feed, and 
then blow down below the level that is ordinarily main¬ 
tained. It is very often the case that the water level is 
higher when the engine is running, than it is when none 
of the steam is being used. The engineer should ascertain 
how much higher the water rises in such a case, so as to 
have a proper quantity of water when the engine is 
stopped. 

Boilers of steam fire-engines, as well as all others, 
should be carefully examined and proved by hydraulic 
test, at least once a year; but such tests and examinations 
should be conducted by skilled mechanics and experienced 
boiler inspectors only, for ignorance of the real require¬ 
ments of the examination or test may result in serious 
injury, as the hydrostatic test may prove either a guarantee 
of safety, or means of destruction, according to the intel¬ 
ligence or ignorance of the party by whom it is applied. 
The great number of defects in steam-boilers that must 
eventually lead to accident, brought to light every year 
by the trained inspectors of the “ Hartford Steam Boiler 
Inspection and Insurance Company,” and the immunity 
from boiler explosions, which every steam using com¬ 
munity having their boilers in charge of that company, 
has enjoyed for the past seven years, goes to show the im¬ 
portance of steam boiler inspections, when conducted by 
competent parties. In fact, steam-boilers in general are 
not cleaned, tested, or inspected half as often as they 
should be. 


HAND-BOOK OF MODERN STEAM FIRE-ENGINES. 279 


EVAPORATION IN STEAM-BOILERS. 

As the particles of water rise heated from the bottom 
of the boiler, other particles necessarily subside into their 
places; and it is a point of considerable importance to 
ascertain the direction in which the currents approach the 
plate to receive heat. A particle of water cannot leave 
the heated plate until there is another particle at hand to 
occupy its position; therefore, unless a due succession in 
the particles is provided for, the plate cannot get rid of its 
heat, and the proper formation of steam is prevented. It 
may be stated, as a general theory, that vaporization does 
not depend on the quantity of heat applied to the plate, 
but on the quantity of heat abstracted from it by the par¬ 
ticles of water as they successively take their places upon 
that part to which the fire is applied. It will follow, 
as a necessary deduction from this fact, that the amount 
of vaporization of steam generated will depend upon the 
quickness with which cold atoms of water gain access to 
the heated portions of the vessels, while the hotter atoms 
are driven off. An engineer, therefore, will give a careful 
consideration to the means of promoting that access of the 
water to one side of the plate and of heat to the other. 

Experiments and facts tend to show that every facility 
should be provided for enabling steam to make its exit 
from the bottom of the boiler; that ample space should 
be given at the ends or sides of the boiler for the circula¬ 
tion of the large body of water which, having parted with 
its steam, is now again returning to the heated plates at 
the bottom. It is highly desirable that the water should 
be made to circulate around the sides of the boiler; 
because, as water almost invariably contains portions of 
lime and other earthy salts, this sediment will be depos¬ 
ited on those portions of the boiler where they can do little 





280 HAND-BOOK OF MODERN STEAM FIRE-ENGINES. 

harm, and away from the tubes, which would be much 
injured by incrustations. This observation, of course, 
applies only to those boilers where the lire is located in 
the middle, or in which it passes through tubes, and where 
no excessive heat is likely to touch the parts incrusted. 
It has been proved beyond doubt that no boiler can be 
injured by heat as long as its plates are in contact with 
water; these points have been settled by a great variety 
of experiments. 

INTERNAL AND EXTERNAL CORROSION OF STEAM- 

BOILERS. 

Internal and external corrosion are two of the mala¬ 
dies that affect the integrity and limit the usefulness of 
steam-boilers. 

Internal corrosion presents itself in various forms, each 
having a peculiar character of its own, though only some¬ 
times strongly markedthese are designated as uniform 
corrosion, wasting, 'pitting, honey-combing , and grooving. 

External corrosion is said to be due to galvanic action, 
or the influence of chemicals and dampness combined. 
Uniform corrosion is that description of wasting of the 
plates or tubes, where the water corrodes them, in a more 
or less uniform manner, in patches of considerable extent, 
and where there is usually no well-defined line between 
the corroded part and the sound plate. 

The presence of this as well as of other kinds of corro¬ 
sion can generally be easily detected, even when covered 
with a considerable thickness of incrustation, as its presence 
is often revealed on emptying the boiler by the bleeding, or 
red streaks, where the scale is cracked ; although in some 
cases, even where the plates are free from incrustation, 
uniform corrosion, in consequence of its even surface and 


HAND-BOOK OF MODERN STEAM FIRE-ENGINES. 281 


the absence of any well-defined limit to its extent, may 
sometimes escape detection. 

Even when actually discovered, the depth to which it 
has penetrated can only be ascertained by drilling holes 
through the plate and measuring the amount of material 
remaining. With lap-joints, the thickness remaining at 
the edge of the plate and round the rivet-heads may serve 
as a guide to the amount of wasting; but this may prove 
treacherous, since the adjacent plates may both be cor¬ 
roded to an equal extent along with the rivet-heads, which 
will give the edge of the plate the appearance of having 
the original thickness. 

Another peculiarity worthy of notice is the different 
manner in which the plates and rivet-heads are affected 
by different kinds of waters after the wasting has been 
going on for some time. In most cases the corroded iron 
is readily removed, if it does not come off without means 
being taken to detach it. But cases are to be met with 
where the corroded iron adheres tenaciously to the sound 
plate beneath. In such cases considerable force is required 
to remove it, and the presence of the corrosion is not sus¬ 
pected until the hammer or pick is forcibly applied. 

It frequently occurs that in the case of two boilers alike 
in every respect, fed with the same water and subject to 
the same treatment, one may be found attacked at the 
front end, whilst the other may be affected only on the 
bottom at the back end. 

With the feed-water from one supply only, corrosion is 
found more often under an incrustation of sulphate of lime 
than under one consisting chiefly of carbonate of lime. 
In many boilers fed with water containing the former 
salt, a coating of oxide of iron of a black color may be 
found adhering to the detached scale, which, as often as it 
reforms and is broken off, brings with it a fresh film of oxide. 

24 * 




282 HAND-BOOK OF MODERN STEAM FIRE-ENGINES. 

Various means, such as the use of rain, surface, and dis¬ 
tilled waters, have been employed for the prevention of 
internal corrosion; but they were all found impracticable 
and generally abandoned, as the expense involved in most 
cases was found to exceed that of replacing the corroded 
boiler with a new one, even after a/ service of only a few 
years. Lord’s Boiler Compound appears to be the only 
known remedy that affords any protection to boilers 
against the fearful effects of this singular and mysterious 
phenomenon, as it has been found to neutralize the mineral 
ingredients of the most destructive waters, and prevent the 
internal corrosion and wasting of boiler-plates, seams, and 
rivets. 

External corrosion is frequently more destructive than 
internal, particularly in the case of stationary boilers. 
This probably arises from the fact that its presence is 
less suspected, and is often less easily detected in conse¬ 
quence of the covering of brickwork or other material 
surrounding the shell. The most frequent causes of ex¬ 
ternal corrosion are exposure to the weather, leakage from 
seams, dripping from safety- or other valves, moisture 
arising from the ground, either from the damp nature of 
the location or from the want of proper appliances to carry 
off the waste water. 

A slight leakage from a bad joint may be sufficient to 
cause a severe local grooving at the seam or flange, as it 
often goes on for a length of time unperceived and unsus¬ 
pected, especially when the shell is covered by brickwork, 
or other material to prevent the radiation of heat, as in 
such cases, if a leak takes place on the upper side of the 
boiler, the whole circumference of the shell is liable to 
suffer from it. One of the most remarkable phenomena 
connected with all kinds of corrosion is the singular 
manner in which they make their appearance and act, 


HAND-BOOK OF MODERN STEAM FIRE-ENGINES. 283 


affecting very few boilers alike, or even in the same 
locality. 

Corrosion of Marine Boilers. — Marine boilers seldom 
last more than four or five years; whereas land boilers, 
made of the same quality of iron, often last fifteen or 
twenty years; yet the difference in durability is not the 
effect of any chemical action upon the iron by the contact 
of sea-water, for the flues of marine boilers rarely show 
any deterioration from this cause; and even in worn-out 
marine boilers, the hammer-marks on the flues are as con¬ 
spicuous as at the time of their formation. 

The thin film or scale spread over the internal parts of 
marine boilers would seem of itself to preserve that part 
of the iron from corrosion which is situated below the 
water-level ; but, strange as it may seem, it is rare to find 
any internal corrosion of boilers using salt-water, in those 
parts of the boiler with which the water comes in contact; 
the cause, therefore, of the rapid corroding of marine 
boilers is not traceable to the chemical action of salt-water, 
as steamships provided with surface condensers, which 
supply the boilers with fresh-water, have not reaped much 
benefit in the durability of their boilers. 

Corrosion of steam-boilers is one of the most obscure 
subjects in the whole range of engineering. 

RULES. 

Rule for finding the Safe Working Pressure of Iron 
Boilers .—Multiply the thickness of the iron by .56 if single 
riveted, and .70 if double riveted; multiply this product 
by 10,000 (safe load); then divide this last product by 
the external radius (less thickness of iron) : the quotient 
will be the safe working pressure in pounds per square 
inch. 





284 HAND-BOOK OF MODERN STEAM FIRE-ENGINES. 


EXAMPLE. 

Diameter of boiler.42 inches. 

Thickness of iron.. I inch. 

2)42 

21 external radius. 

.375 

20.625 internal radius. 

Thickness of iron § = .375 

.56 single riveted. 

2250 

1875 

.21000 

10000 safe load. 

20.625)2100.00000 

101.81 lbs. safe working press. 

In the above rule, 50,000 pounds per square inch are 
taken as the tensile strength of boiler iron, and one-fifth 
of that, or 10,000, as the safe load. Hence five times the 
safe working pressure, or 50,000 pounds, would be the 
bursting pressure. 

Rule for finding the Safe Working Pressure of Steel Boilers. 
— Multiply the thickness of steel by .56 if single riveted, 
and .70 if double riveted ; multiply this product by 16,000 
(safe load); then divide this last product by the external 
radius (less thickness of steel) : the quotient will be the 
safe working pressure in pounds per square inch. 

EXAMPLE. 


Diameter of boiler.44 inches. 

Thickness of steel. \ inch. 


2)44 

22 external radius. 
.25 


21.75 internal radius. 












HAND-BOOK OF MODERN STEAM FIRE-ENGINES. 285 


Thickness of steel \ — .25 

.70 double riveted. 

1750 

16000 

1050000 

175 

21.75)2800.000 

128.73 safe working pressure. 

80,000 being taken, in the above rule, as the tensile strength 
of steel, and one-fifth of that, or 16,000, as the safe load. 
Hence, 80,000 would be the bursting pressure. 

RuSe for finding the Aggregate Strain caused by the Press¬ 
ure of Steam on the Shells of Steam-boilers. — Multiply the 
circumference in inches by the length in inches ; multiply 
this product by the pressure iu pounds per square inch. 
The result will be the aggregate pressure on the shell 
of the boiler. 

EXAMPLE. 


Diameter of boiler...42 inches. 

Circumference of boiler.131.9472 “ 

Length “ .10 ft., or 120 “ 

Pressure “ .125 pounds. 

131.9472 X 1^0 X 125 = 1,979,208 pounds -4- 2000 = 989 tons. 


RULE FOR FINDING THE HEATING SURFACE OF 

STEAM-BOILERS. 

Rule for Locomotive or Fire-box Boilers. —Multiply 
the length of the furnace-plates in inches by their height 
above the grate in inches; multiply the width of the ends 
in inches by their height in inches; also, the length of the 
crown-sheet in inches by its width in inches; multiply 
the combined circumference of all the tubes in inches by 












286 HAND-BOOK OF MODERN STEAM FIRE-ENGINES. 

their length in inches; from the sum of the four products 
subtract the combined area of all the tubes and the fire- 
door; divide the remainder by 144, and the quotient will 
be the number of square feet of heating surface. 

Rule for Flue Boilers. — Multiply § of the circum¬ 
ference of the shell in inches by its length in inches; 
multiply the combined circumference of all the flues in 
inches by their length in inches ; divide the sum of these 
two products by 144, and the quotient will be the number 
of square feet of heating surface. 

Rule for Cylinder Boilers. —Multiply § of the circum¬ 
ference in inches by its length in inches; add to this 
product the area of one end; divide this sum by 144, and 
the quotient will be the number of square feet of heating 
surface. 

Rule for Tubular Boilers. — Multiply § of the circum¬ 
ference of the shell in inches by its length in inches; mul¬ 
tiply the combined circumference of all the tubes by their 
length in inches. To the sum of these two products add 
| the area of both tube-sheets; from this sum subtract 
the combined area of all the tubes; divide the remainder 
by 144, and the quotient will be the number of square feet 
of heating surface. 

Rule for finding the Heating Surface of Vertical Tabular 
Boilers , such as are generally used for Fire-engines. —Multi¬ 
ply the circumference of the fire-box in inches by its height 
above the grate in inches. Multiply the combined cir¬ 
cumference of all the tubes in inches by their length in 
inches, and to these two products add the area of the 
lower tube- or crown-sheet, and from this sum subtract the 
area of all the tubes, and divide by 144. The quotient 
will be the number of square feet of heating surface in 
the boiler. 

To find the square feet of heating surface in any num- 



THE SILSBY VERTICAL STEAM BOILER, described on page 73. 




















































































































































































288 HAND-BOOK OF MODERN STEAM FIRE-ENGINES. 

ber of tubes, multiply the circumference of one tube in 
inches by its length in inches. Multiply this by the 
whole number of tubes, and divide by 144. 

To find the combined area of any number of tubes or 
flues, multiply the area of one tube by the whole number 
of tubes, and divide by 144. 

DEFINITIONS AS APPLIED TO BOILERS AND BOILER 

MATERIALS. 

Tensile strength is the absolute resistance which a body 
makes to being torn apart by two forces acting in opposite 
directions. 

Working Strength. — The term “working strength” 
implies a certain reduction made in the estimate of the 
strength of materials, so that, when the instrument or 
machine is put to use, it may be capable of resisting a 
greater strain than it is expected on the average to sus¬ 
tain. 

Safe Working Pressure, or Safe Load. —The safe 
working pressure of steam-boilers is generally taken as i 
of the bursting pressure, whatever that may be. 

Elasticity is that quality which enables a body or boiler 
to return to its original form after having been distorted 
or stretched by some extreme force. 

Internal Radius. — The internal radius is 4 of the di- 

■V 

ameter less the thickness of the iron. To find the internal 
radius of a boiler, take ^ of the external diameter and 
subtract the thickness of the iron. 

Longitudinal Seams. —The seams which are parallel to 
the length of a boiler are called the longitudinal seams. 

Curvilinear Seams. —The curvilinear seams of a boiler 
are those around the circumference. 


HAND-BOOK OF MODERN STEAM FIRE-ENGINES. 289 


TABLE 

OF SAFE INTERNAL PRESSURES FOR IRON BOILERS. 


Birmingham Wire 
Gauge. 

3 

8 

00 

0 

1 . 

2 

Thickness of Iron. 

.375 

3 

8 

.358 
f Scant. 

.340 

i i 

3 2 

.300 

5 

T1? 

.284 

S 9 2 


Dia. 

lbs. per 

lbs. per 

lbs. per 

lbs. per 

lbs. per 


In. 

sq. in. 

sq. in. 

sq. in. 

sq. in. 

sq. in. 

.External 

24 i 

180.65 

172.20 

163.29 

143.59 

135.75 

Diameter. 

26 

166.34 

158.58 

150.39 

132.28 

125.08 


28 

154.13 

146.96 

139.38 

122.63 

115.95 


30 

143.59 

136.92 

129.88 

114.29 

108.07 


32 

134.40 

128.17 

121.58 

107.01 

101.20 


34 

126.31 

120.47 

114.29 

100.60 

95.14 


36 

119.15 

113.64 

107.81 

94.92 

89.77 


38 

112.75 

107.54 

102.04 

89.84 

84.98 


40 

107.01 

102.07 

96.85 

85.28 

80.67 


42 

101.81 

97.12 

92.11 

81.16 

76.77 

Longitudinal 

44 

97.11 

92.63 

87.90 

77.42 

73.24 

Seams, 

46 

92.82 

88.54 

84.02 

74.01 

70.01 

Single 

48 

88.89 

84.80 

80.47 

70.89 

67.06 

Riveted. 

50 

85.28 

81.36 

77.21 

68.02 

64.35 


52 

81.95 

78.18 

74.20 

65.37 

61.84 


54 

78.87 

75.25 

71.42 

62.92 

59.53 


56 

76.02 

72.53 

68.84 

60.65 

57.38 


58 

73.36 

70.00 

66.43 

58.54 

55.38 


60 

70.89 

67.63 

64.19 

56.57 

53.52 


62 

68.57 

65.43 

62.10 

54.72 

51.78 


64 

66.40 

63.36 

60.14 

53.00 

50.15 


66 

64.37 

61.42 

58.30 

51.38 

48.61 


68 

62.45 

59.59 

56.57 

49.85 

47.17 


70 

60.65 

57.87 

54.93 

48.41 

45.81 


72 

58.95 

56.25 

53.39 

47.06 

44.53 


74 

57.34 

54.71 

51.94 

45.78 

43.32 


76 

55.81 

53.26 

50.56 

44.56 

42.17 


78 

54.37 

51.88 

49.25 

43.41 

41.08 


80 

53.00 

50.57 

48.01 

42.32 

40.04 


25 T 







































290 HAND-BOOK OF MODERN STEAM FIRE-ENGINES. 


TABLE — ( Continued) 

OF SAFE INTERNAL PRESSURES FOR IRON BOILERS. 


Birmingham 
Wire Gauge. 

3 

4 

5 

6 

7 

8 

Thickness 

.259 

.238 

.220 

.203 

.180 

.165 

of Iron. 


\ Full. 

| Scant. 

A 

A Full. 

^Scant 

A Full. 


Dia. 

lbs. per 

lbs. per 

lbs. per 

lbs. per 

lbs. per 

lbs. per 


In. 

sq. in. 

sq. in. 

sq. in. 

sq. in. 

sq. in. 

sq. in. 

External 

24 

123.53 

113.31 

104.58 

96.36 

85.28 

78.07 

Diameter. 

26 

113.84 

104.44 

96.40 

88.83 

78.63 

71.99 


28 

105.55 

96.85 

89.40 

82.39 

72.94 

66.79 


80 

98.39 

90.29 

83.36 

76.83 

68.02 

62.29 


32 

92.14 

84.56 

78.07 

71.96 

63.72 

58.35 


34 

86.64 

79.51 

73.42 

67.68 

59.93 

54.89 


36 

81.75 

75.04 

69.29 

63.88 

56.57 

51.81 


38 

77.39 

71.04 

65.60 

60.48 

53.56 

49.06 


40 

73.47 

67.44 

62.29 

57.42 

50.86 

46.58 


42 

69.93 

64.19 

59.29 

54.66 

48.41 

44.35 


44 

66.71 

61.24 

56.57 

52.15 

46.20 

42.32 

Long. 

46 

63.78 

58.55 

54.08 

49.87 

44.17 

40.46 

Seams, 

48 

61.09 

56.09 

51.81 

47.77 

42.32 

38.77 

Single 

50 

58.62 

53.82 

49.72 

45.84 

4061 

37.21 

FLiveted. 

52 

56.35 

51.74 

47.79 

44.07 

39.04 

35.77 


54 

54.24 

49.80 

46.00 

42.42 

37.58 

34.43 


56 

52.28 

48.01 

44.35 

40.90 

36.23 

33.20 


58 

50.46 

46.34 

42.81 

39.48 

34.98 

32.04 


60 

48.77 

44.78 

41.37 

38.15 

33.80 

30.97 


62 

47.18 

43.33 

40.03 

36.91 

32.71 

29.97 


64 

45.69 

41.96 

38.77 

35.75 

31.68 

29.02 


66 

44.30 

40.68 

37.58 

34.66 

30.71 

28.14 


68 

42.99 

39.48 

36.47 

33.64 

29.80 

27.31 


70 

41.75 

38.34 

35.42 

32.67 

28.95 

26.53 


72 

40.58 

37.27 

34.43 

31.76 

28.14 

25.78 


74 

39.48 

36.25 

33.50 

30.89 

27.38 

25.08 


76 

38.43 

35.29 

32.61 

30.08 

26.65 

24.42 


78 

37.44 

34.38 

31.77 

29.30 

25.96 

23.79 


80 

36.49 

33.52 

30.97 

28.56 

25.31 

23.20 































HAND-BOOK OF MODERN STEAM FIRE-ENGINES. 291 


TABL E — ( Continued) 

OF SAFE INTERNAL, PRESSURES FOR IRON BOILERS. 


Birmingham Wire 
Gauge. 

3 

8 

00 

. 0 

1 

2 

Thickness of Iron. 

.375 

3 

8 

.358 
f Scant. 

.340 
i i 

3 2 

.300 

5 

TIT 

.284 

A 


Dia. 

lbs. per 

lbs. per 

lbs. per 

lbs. per 

lbs. per 


In. 

sq. in. 

sq. in. 

sq. in. 

sq. in. 

sq. in. 

External 

24 

225.81 

215.26 

204.12 

179.49 

169.67 

Diameter. 

26 

207.93 

198.23 

187.91 

165.35 

156.34 


28 

192.66 

183.70 

174.23 

153.28 

144.94 


30 

179.49 

171.15 

162.35 

142.86 

135:09 


32 

168.00 

160.21 

151.98 

133.76 

126.49 


34 

157.89 

150.58 

142 86 

125.75 

118.93 


36 

148.94 

142.05 

134.77 

118.64 

112.21 


38 

140.94 

134 43 

127.55 

112.30 

106.22 


40 

133.76 

127.58 

121.06 

106.60 

100.83 

Longitudinal 

42 

127.27 

121.40 

115.20 

101.45 

95.96 

Seams, 

44 

121.39 

115.79 

109.88 

96.77 

91.55 

Double 

46 

116.02 

110.68 

105.03 

92.51 

87.52 

Riveted, 

48 

111.11 

106.00 

100.59 

88.61 

83.83 

Curvilinear 

50 

106.19 

101.70 

96.51 

85.02 

80.43 

Seams, 

52 

102.44 

97.73 

92.75 

81.71 

77.33 

Single 

54 

98.59 

94.10 

89.27 

78.69 

74.41 

Riveted. 

56 

95.02 

90.66 

86.04 

75.81 

71.73 


58 

91.70 

87.49 

83.04 

73.17 

69.23 


60 

88.61 

84.54 

80.24 

70.71 

66.90 


62 

85.71 

81.78 

77.63 

68.40 

64.72 


64 

83.00 

79.17 

75.17 

66.25 

62.68 


66 

80.46 

76.78 

72.87 

64.22 

60.77 


68 

78.07 

74.47 

70.71 

62.31 

58.96 


70 

75.81 

72.34 

68.67 

60.52 

57.26 


72 

73.68 

70.31 

66.74 

58.82 

55.66 


74 

71.67 

68.39 

64.92 

57.22 

54.15 


76 

69.77 

66.60 

63.19 

55.70 

52.77 


78 

67.96 

64.85 

61.56 

54.26 

51.35 


80 

66.25 

63.22 

60.01 

52.90 

50.06 








































292 


HAND-BOOK OF MODERN STEAM FIRE-ENGINES. 


TABLE-C Continued) 

OF SAFE INTERNAL PRESSURES FOR IRON BOILERS. 


Birmingham 
Wire Gauge. 


Thickness 


of Iron. 



Dia. 

In. 

External 

24 

Diameter. 

26 

28 

30 

32 

34 

36 

38 

40 

42 

44 

Dong. 

46 

Seams, 

48 

Double 

50 

Riveted. 

52 

Curvil. 

54 

Seams, 

56 

Single 

58 

Riveted. 

60 

62 

64 

66 

68 

70 

72 

74 

76 

78 

80 


3 

4 

.259 

.238 

\ Full. 

\ Scant. 

lbs. per 
sq. in. 

154.42 

lbs. per 
sq.in. 

141.64 

142.30 

130.54 

131.94 

121.06 

122.99 

112.86 

116.32 

105.70 

108.30 

99.39 

102.19 

93.80 

96.74 

88.80 

91.84 

84.30 

87.41 

80.24 

83.39 

76.56 

79.72 

73.19 

76.37 

70.11 

73.28 

67.28 

70.43 

64.67 

67.80 

62.25 

65.35 

60.01 

63.07 

57.92 

60.96 

55.98 

58.98 

54.16 

57.12 

52.45 

55.37 

50.85 

53.73 

49.35 

52.19 

47.93 

50.73 

46.59 

49.35 

45.32 

48.04 

44.11 

46.80 

42.98 

45.62 

41.90 


5 

6 

.220 

.203 

7 

~5 2 

A Fun 

lbs. per 

lbs. per 

sq. in. 

sq. in. 

130.73 

120.45 

120.50 

111.04 

111.76 

102.99 

104.19 

96.03 

97.59 

89.95 

91.78 

84.60 

86.61 

79.84 

82.00 

75.60 

77.86 

71.78 

74.11 

68.33 

70.71 

65.19 

67.60 

62.33 

64.76 

59.71 

62.11 

57.31 

59.74 

55.08 

57.51 

53.40 

55.44 

51.12 

53.51 

49.35 

51.71 

47.69 

50.03 

46.14 

48.46 

44.69 

46.98 

43.33 

45.59 

42.05 

44.28 

40.84 

43.04 

39.70 

41.87 

38.62 

40.76 

37.60 

39.71 

36.63 

38.71 

35.71 


7 

8 

.180 

.165 

AScant 

A Full 

lbs. per 

lbs. per 

sq. in. 

sq. in. 

106.60 

97.59 

98.21 

89.99 

91.17 

83.48 

85.02 

77.86 

79.65 

72.94 

74.91 

68.61 

70.71 

64.76 

66.95 

61.32 

63.57 

58.23 

60.52 

55.44 

57.75 

52.90 

55.22 

50.58 

52.90 

48.46 

50.77 

46.51 

48.80 

44.71 

46.98 

43.04 

45.29 

41.50 

43.72 

40.06 

42.25 

38.71 

40.88 

37.46 

39.60 

36.28 

38.39 

35.18 

37.26 

34.14 

36.19 

33.16 

35.18 

32.23 

34.22 

31.36 

33.32 

30.53 

32.46 

29.74 

31.64 

28.99 

































HAND-BOOK OF MODERN STEAM FIRE-ENGINES. 293 


LONGITUDINAL AND CURVILINEAR STRAINS. 

The force tending to rupture a cylinder along the 
curved sides depends upon the diameter of the cylinder 
and pressure of steam ; and we may therefore consider the 
total pressure sustained by the sides to be equal to the di¬ 
ameter x pressure per unit of surface X length of cyl¬ 
inder, neglecting any support derivable from the heads, 
which, in practice, depends on the length. 

It must be understood that the strain on a boiler sub¬ 
jected to internal pressure transversely, is exactly double 
what it is longitudinally; or, in other words, the strain on 
the longitudinal seams is double that on the curvilinear. 
No matter what the diameter of a boiler may be, the 
transverse pressure tending to tear it asunder will always 
be double the pressure exerted on the curvilinear seams. 

HEAT. 

ft would be difficult to over-estimate the importance of 
the part played by heat, both on a grand scale in the 
laboratory of nature, and on a minor scale, in the domain 
of human art and science. In the former respect, it is not 
only an essential condition of the existence of life on this 
planet, but also the prime agent in putting in motion most 
of the physical changes which take place at the earth’s 
surface. In the latter respect it must be regarded not 
only as furnishing man with the chief means he possesses 
of imitating nature, and moulding and modifying natural 
productions to his wants, but also as bestowing on him 
the ability to generate and apply at pleasure a force 
equally stupendous and easy to control. 

Heat is one form of mechanical power, or, more prop¬ 
erly, a given quantity of heat is the equivalent of a de- 
' 25* 








294 HAND-BOOK OF MODERN STEAM FIRE-ENGINES. 

terminate amount of mechanical power; and as heat is 
capable of producing power, so, contrariwise, power is 
capable of producing heat. As it becomes necessary to 
have a standard for measuring the amount of heat ab¬ 
sorbed or evolved during any operation, in this country 
the standard unit is the amount of heat necessary to raise 
the temperature of a pound of water 1° Fah., or from 32° 
to 33° Fah. 

Specific Heat. —Different bodies require different quan¬ 
tities of heat to effect in them the same change of tem¬ 
perature. The capacity of a body for heat is termed its 
“specific heat,” and may be defined as the number of 
units of heat necessary to raise the temperature of 1 pound 
of that body 1° Fah. When a substance is heated it ex¬ 
pands, and its temperature is increased. It is evident, 
therefore, that heat is required both to raise the tempera¬ 
ture and to increase the distance between the particles of 
the substance. 

The heat used in the latter case is converted into inte¬ 
rior work, and is not sensible to the thermometer; but it 
will be given out, if the temperature of the substance is 
reduced to the original point. Thus, while heat is appa¬ 
rently lost, it is only stored up, ready to do work, and the 
substance possesses a certain amount of latent and inherent 
energy, or possibility of doing work. 

Now, as different substances vary greatly in their molec¬ 
ular constitution, expanding and contracting the same 
amount with widely differing degrees of force, it is to be 
expected that the same quantity of heat that will raise one 
substance to a given temperature, will exert a different 
effect upon another body, which may require a greater or 
less degree of heat to produce the same result; and we find 
in practice that such is the case. 

The condition of heat is measured as a quantity, and 


HAND-BOOK OF MODERN STEAM FIRE-ENGINES. 295 


its amount in different bodies and under different circum¬ 
stances is compared by means of the changes in some 
measurable phenomenon produced by its transfer or dis¬ 
appearance. In so using changes of temperature, it is not 
to be taken for granted that equal differences of tempera¬ 
ture in the same body correspond to equal quantities of 
heat. This is the case, indeed, for perfectly gaseous 
bodies; but that is a fact only known by experiment. 

On bodies in other conditions, equal differences of tem¬ 
perature do not exactly correspond to equal quantities of 
heat. To ascertain, therefore, by an experiment on the 
changes of temperature of any given substances, what pro¬ 
portion two quantities of heat bear to each other, the only 
method which is of itself sufficient, in the absence of all 
other experimental data, is the comparison of the weights 
of that substance which are raised from the same low tem¬ 
perature to a high or fixed temperature. 

The Unit of Heat. —The unit of heat, or the thermal 
unit employed, is the quantity of heat, as before stated, 
that will raise 1 pound of pure water 1° Fall., or from 39° 
to 40° Fah. The reason for selecting that part of the scale 
which is nearest the temperature of the greatest density 
of water, is because the quantity of heat corresponding to 
an interval of one degree in a given weight of water is 
not exactly the same in different parts of the scale of tem¬ 
perature. 

Latent Heat. — Latent heat means a quantity of heat 
which has disappeared, having been employed to produce 
some change other than elevation of temperature. By 
exactly reversing that change, the quantity of heat which 
had disappeared is reproduced. 

When a body is said to possess or contain so much 
latent heat, what is meant is simply this: that the body 
is in a condition into which it was brought from a former 





296 HAND-BOOK OF MODERN STEAM FIRE-ENGINES. 

and different condition by transferring to it a quantity of 
heat which did not raise its temperature, the change of 
condition being different from change of temperature, 
and that by restoring the body to its original condition in 
such a manner as exactly to reverse the former process, 
the quantity of heat formerly expended may be repro¬ 
duced in the body and transferred to other bodies. 

When a body passes from the solid to the liquid state, as 
ice to water, its temperature remains stationary, or nearly 
so, at a certain melting point, during the whole operation 
of melting; and in order to cause that operation to continue, 
a quantity of heat must be transferred to the substance 
melted, a certain amount for each unit of weight of the 
substance. But this heat does not raise the temperature 
of the substance, but disappears in causing its condition to 
change from the solid to the liquid state. 

When a substance passes from the liquid to the solid 
state, as water being converted to ice, its temperature 
remains stationary, or nearly so, during the whole opera¬ 
tion of freezing; a quantity of heat equal to the latent 
heat of fusion is produced in the body; and in order that 
the operation of freezing may go on, that amount of 
heat must be transferred from that body to some other 
substance. 

Sensible Heat. —Sensible heat is that which is sensible 
to the touch or measurable by the thermometer. 

Mechanical Equivalent of Heat. —The mechanical equiv¬ 
alent of heat is the amount of work performed by the 
conversion of one unit of heat into work. This has been 
determined to be equal in amount to the work required to 
raise 772 pounds one foot high, or one pound 772 feet 
high. And as heat and work are mutually convertible, if 
a body weighing one pound, after falling through a height 
of 772 feet, were to have its motion suddenly arrested, it 




HAND-BOOK OF MODERN STEAM FIRE-ENGINES. 297 


would develop sufficient heat to raise the temperature of a 
pound of water one degree. 

If a pound of water, at a temperature of 212° Fall., is 
converted into steam, the latter will possess a volume of 
about 27j cubic feet. Now, suppose that the water is 
evaporated in a long cylinder of exactly one foot cross 
section, open to the atmosphere at the top, when all the 
water in the cylinder has disappeared, there will be a 
column of steam 27| feet high, which has risen to this 
height against the pressure of the atmosphere. 

The pressure of the air being nearly 15 pounds per square 
inch, the pressure per square foot is 2115 pounds, and the 
external work performed by the water, while being con¬ 
verted into steam, will be an amount required to raise 2115 
pounds to a height of 27| feet, or about 57,644 foot-pounds. 
Now, since 772 foot-pounds of work require one unit of 
heat, the external work will take up 57,644 divided by 
772, which equals 74.64 units of heat. But it has been 
shown that the total number of units of heat required to 
change water into steam is about 968 (more accurately, 
966.6). Hence the internal work will be equal to an 
amount developed by the conversion of 966.6 less 74.67, 
which equals 891.93, units of heat into work, and this will 
equal 891.93, multiplied by 772, which equals 688,569 
foot-pounds. 

Mechanical Theory of Heat. — The mechanical theory 
of heat is now generally adopted It is based on the as¬ 
sumption that heat and work are mutually convertible, 
and on this theory can be explained what becomes of the 
latent heat. All solid bodies are supposed to be made up 
of molecules, which are not in contact, but are prevented 
from separating by a force called cohesion. If a body is 
heated to a sufficient temperature, the force of expansion 
becomes equal to that of cohesion, and the body is lique- 




298 HAND-BOOK OF MODERN STEAM FIRE-ENGINES. 

fled; and if still more heat is applied, the force of ex¬ 
pansion exceeds that of cohesion, and the liquid becomes 
vapor. But in each of these changes work is performed, 
and the heat that is supplied is converted into work. For 
instance, if ice is at a temperature of 32°, and heat is 
applied, this is converted into the work that is developed 
in changing the ice into water, and we say that heat 
becomes latent; again, when water is at 212°, and we con¬ 
tinue to apply heat, this is converted into the work that 
must be done in converting the water into steam. 

Dynamic Equivalent of Heat. —It is a matter of every¬ 
day observation, that heat, by expanding bodies, is a 
source of mechanical energy; and conversely, that mechan¬ 
ical energy, being expended either in compressing bodies 
or in friction, becomes a source of heat. In all other cases in 
which heat is produced by the expenditure of mechanical 
energy, or in which mechanical energy is produced by the 
expenditure of heat, some other change is produced besides 
that which is principally considered ; and this prevents the 
heat and the mechanical energy from being exactly equiv¬ 
alent. 

Power of Expansion by Heat. —When bodies expand, 
the molecules of which they are composed are pushed 
farther asunder by the oscillatory motion communicated 
to them. The heat may be described as entering the sub¬ 
stance and immediately setting to work to separate the 
particles. The power or energy it exerts to do this is 
immense. 

Molecular or Atomic Force of Heat. —All molecules 
are under the influence of two opposite forces. The one, 
viz., molecular attraction, tends to bring them together; 
the other, viz., heat, tends to separate them: its intensity 
varies with its velocity of vibration. Molecular attrac¬ 
tion is only exerted at infinitely small distances, and is 


HAND-BOOK OF MODERN STEAM FIRE-ENGINES. 299 


known under the name of cohesion, affinity, and adhe¬ 
sion. 

Total or Actual Heat. — If, when a substance, l}y the ex¬ 
penditure of energy in friction, is brought from a condi¬ 
tion of total privation of heat to any particular condition 
of heat, we subtract from the total energy so expended, 
first, the mechanical work performed by the action of the 
substance on external bodies, through changes of its vol¬ 
ume, during such heating, secondly, the mechanical work 
due to the mutual action between the particles of the sub¬ 
stance itself during such heating, the remainder will rep¬ 
resent the energy which is employed in making the sub¬ 
stance hot. 

Communication of Heat. — Heat may be communicated 
from a hot body to a cold one in three ways,— by radia¬ 
tion, conduction, and circulation. The rapidity with 
which heat radiates varies, other things being equal, as the 
square of the temperature of the hot body is in excess of 
the temperature of the cold one; so that a body, if made 
twice as hot, will lose a degree of temperature in one-fourth 
of the time ; if made three times as hot, it will lose a degree 
of temperature in one-ninth of the time, and so on in all 
other proportions. 

Transmission of Heat. —Tredgoldand others have made 
experiments to ascertain the rate at which heat is trans¬ 
ferred from metal to gases and from gases to metal. 
Other things being equal, it has been found that the rate 
of transferrence is as the difference of temperature. But in 
practice the conditions are different from those in the ex¬ 
periment ; generally, in experiments, the air has been still, 
and the gases moving under natural draught; but in loco¬ 
motive practice, the velocity of the gases is so great as to 
render the results of most experiments inapplicable. 

Effects of Heat on the Circulation of Water in Boilers. 




300 v HAND-BOOK OF MODERN STEAM FIRE-ENGINES. 


— As the particles of water rise heated from the bottom 
of the boiler, other particles necessarily subside into their 
places, and it is a point of considerable importance to as¬ 
certain the direction in which the currents approach the 
plate to receive heat. A particle of water cannot leave 
the heated plate until there is another particle at hand to 
occupy its position; therefore, unless a due succession in 
the particles is provided for, the plate cannot get rid of 
its heat, and the proper formation of steam is retarded. 
But it must be understood that vaporizing does not 
depend on the quantity of heat applied to the plate, but 
on the quantity of heat abstracted from it by the particles 
of water. 

Medium Heat. —The medium heat of the globe is placed 
at 50° ; at the torrid zone, 75° ; at moderate climates, 50° ; 
near the Polar regions, 36° Fah. The extremes of natural 
heat are from 70° to 120° ; of artificial heat, 91° to 
36000° Fah. 

LATENT HEAT OF VARIOUS SUBSTANCES. 


Fah. 

Ice. I40 c 

Sulphur. 144 

Lead. 162 

Beeswax. 176 

Zinc. 493 


Fah. 

Steam. 990° 

Vinegar. 875 

Ammonia. 860 

Alcohol. 442 

Ether. 301 


TABLE OF THE RADIATING POWER OF DIFFERENT 

BODIES. 


Water. 100 

Lamp-black. 100 

Writing-paper. 100 

Glass. 90 

India-ink. 88 

Bright lead. 19 

Silver. 12 


Blackened tin . 100° 

Clean “ . 12 

Scraped “ . 16 

Ice. 85 

Mercury. 20 

Polished iron. 15 

Copper. 12 
































HAND-BOOK OF MODERN STEAM FIRE-ENGINES. 301 


TABLE 


SHOWING THE EFFECTS OF HEAT UPON DIFFERENT BODIES. 


Fah. 

Cast-iron, thoroughly \ 2754 ° 
smelted. I “ 

Fah. 

Lead melts. 594° 

Rismnth “.,. 476 

Fine gold melts. 1983 

Fine silver “ .....\. 1850 

Copper “ 2160 

Brass “ 1900 

Bed heat, visible by day 1077 
Iron red-hot in twilight 884 

Common fire. 790 

Iron, bright red in the \ 

dark.j 

Zinc melts. 740 

Quicksilver boils. 630 

Linseed oil. 600 

Tin “. 421 

Tin and Bismuth, \ ^33 

equal parts, melt... J 

Tin, 3 parts, Bismuth \ 

5, and Lead 2 parts, >- 212 

melt.J 

Alcohol boils.. 174 

Ether “ 98 

Human blood (heat of) 98 

Strong wine freezes. 20 

Brandy “ 7 

Mercury melts. 39 


CALORIC. 

The ordinary application of the word heat implies the 
sensation experienced on touching a body hotter, or of a 
higher temperature; whilst the term caloric provides for 
the expression of every conceivable existence of tempera¬ 
ture. Caloric is usually treated as if it were a material 
substance; but, like light and electricity, its true nature 
has yet to be determined. 

Caloric passes through different bodies with different 
degrees of velocity. This has led to the division of bodies 
into conductors and non-conductors of caloric; the former 
includes such bodies as metals, which allow caloric to pass 
freely through their substance, and the latter comprises 
those which do not give an easy passage through it, such 
as stones, glass, wood, charcoal, etc. 

Radiation of Caloric. — When heated bodies are ex¬ 
posed to the air, they lose portions of their heat by pro¬ 
jections in right lines into space from all parts of their 
surface. Radiation is effected by the nature of the surface 
26 
































302 HAND-BOOK OF MODERN STEAM FIRE-ENGINES. 

of the body; thus, black and rough surfaces radiate and 
absorb more heat than light and polished surfaces. Bodies 
which radiate heat best, absorb it best. 

Reflection of caloric differs from radiation, as the 
caloric is in this case reflected from the surface without 
entering the substance of the body. Hence, the body 
which radiates, and consequently absorbs most caloric, 
reflects the least, and vice versa. 

Latent caloric is that which is insensible to the touch, 
or incapable of being detected by the thermometer. The 
quantity of heat necessary to enable ice to assume the fluid 
state, is equal to that which would raise the temperature 
of the same weight of water 140 3 Fah., in which case an 
equal quantity of heat is set free from water when it as¬ 
sumes the solid form. 

Sensible caloric is free and uncombined, passing from 
one substance to another, affecting the senses in ils pass¬ 
age, determining the height of the thermometer, and giving 
rise to all the results which are attributed to this active 
principle. 

Evaporation produces cold, because caloric must be ab¬ 
sorbed in the formation of vapor (a large quantity of it 
passing from a sensible to a latent state), the capacity for 
heat of the vapor formed being greater than that of the 
fluid from which it proceeds. 

Caloric is, therefore, either free and sensible, or latent 
and insensible. Caloric is known to be the cause of fluid¬ 
ity ; and the absence of caloric, the cause of solidity. If 
heat be applied to ice or iron, it becomes fluid; if exposed 
to cold, it resumes its solid form. 


HAND-BOOK OF MODERN STEAM FIRE-ENGINES. 303 


COMBUSTION. 

Combustion is, strictly speaking, the development of 
heat by chemical combination ; but though this may take 
place from the union of a variety of bodies, the omnipresent 
agent, oxygen, plays so vastly more important a part than 
all others in the disengagement of light and heat, that 
the act of its combination with other bodies is pre-emi¬ 
nently entitled combustion. 

Since combustion, in the ordinary acceptation of the 
word, is the only means had recourse to in the arts for the 
development of artificial heat, perfect combustion may, for 
our purpose, be defined to be — the combination of a com¬ 
bustible body with the largest measure of oxygen with 
which it is capable of uniting. In fact, for all practical 
purposes, the fuel, or combustible body, employed may be 
regarded as composed exclusively of carbon and hydrogen; 
so that our inquiry becomes narrowed down to the combi¬ 
nations of oxygen with these two elementary substances. 

No substance in nature is combustible of itself, whatever 
the degree of heat to which it may be exposed; and it can 
be ignited only when in presence of or in mechanical com¬ 
bination with air, or its vital element, oxygen, because 
combustion is continuous ignition, and may only be caused 
by maintaining in the combustible mixture the heat 
necessary to ignite it. Chemical combination in every 
case is accompanied by the production of heat; every de¬ 
composition, by a disappearance of heat equal in amount 
to that which is produced by the combination of the ele¬ 
ments which are to be separated. 

When a complex chemical action takes place in which 
various combinations and decompositions occur simulta¬ 
neously, the heat obtained is the excess of the heat pro¬ 
duced by the combinations above the heat, which disap- 






304 HAND-BOOK OF MODERN STEAM FIRE-ENGINES. 

pears in consequence of the decompositions. Sometimes 
the heat produced is subject to a further deduction, on 
account of heat which disappears in melting or evapo¬ 
rating some of the substances which combine either before 
or during the act of combination. 

Substances combine chemically in certain proportions 
only. To each of the substances known in chemistry, a 
certain number can be assigned, called its chemical equiv¬ 
alent, having these properties: — 1st. That the propor¬ 
tions by weight in which substances combine chemically 
cau all be expressed by their chemical equivalents, or by 
simple multiples of their chemical equivalents. 2d. That 
the chemical equivalent of a compound is the sum of the 
chemical equivalents of its constituents. 

Chemical equivalents are sometimes called atomic 
weights or atoms, in accordance with the hypothesis that 
they are proportionate to the weights of the supposed 
atoms of bodies, or smallest similar parts into which bodies 
are assumed to be divisible by known forces. The term 
atom is convenient from its shortness, and can be used to 
mean “ chemical equivalent,’’ without necessarily affirming 
or denying the hypothesis from which it is derived, which, 
how probable soever it may be, is, like other molecular 
hypotheses, incapable of absolute proof. 

The chief elementary combustible constituents of ordi¬ 
nary fuel are carbon and hydrogen. Sulphur is another 
combustible constituent of ordinary fuel, but its quantity 
is small and its heating power of no practical value. Coal 
is composed, so far as combustion is concerned, of solid 
carbon and a gas consisting of hydrogen and carbon. 
When the coal is heated, it first discharges its gas; the 
solid carbon left then ignites in presence of oxygen, and 
will retain the temperature necessary to combustion so long 
as oxygen is applied. 


HAND-BOOK OF MODERN STEAM FIRE-ENGINES. 305 

The Ingredients of Fuel. —Fixed or free carbon, which 
is left in the form of charcoal or coke after the volatile 
ingredients of the fuel have been distilled away, burns 
either wholly in the solid, or partly in the solid or gaseous 
state; the volatile ingredients being first dissolved by pre¬ 
viously formed carbonic acid, as already explained. 

Hydrocarbons are such substances as gas, pitch, tar, 
naphtha, etc., all of which must pass into the gaseous state 
before being burned. If mixed on their first issuing from 
among the burning carbon with a large quantity of air, 
these inflammable gases are completely burned, with a 
transparent blue flame, producing carbonic acid and 
steam. 

Mixture of Fuel and Air. — In burning charcoal, coke, 
and coals with a small proportion only of hydrocarbons, a 
supply of air sufficient for complete combustion will enter 
from the ash-pit through the bars of the grate, provided 
there is sufficient draught, and that care is taken to dis¬ 
tribute the fresh fuel evenly over the fire, and in moderate 
quantities at a time. 

Available Heat of Combustion. — The available heat 
evolved by the combustion of one pound of a given sort 
of fuel is that part of the total heat of combustion which 
is communicated to the body, to heat which the fuel is 
burned. 

Anthracite Coal. —The chemical composition of anthra¬ 
cite coal is similar to charcoal, from which it differs chiefly 
in its form, being very hard and compact, and in the 
greater quantity of ashes which it contains. It is, like 
charcoal, unaltered in form after exposure to the strongest 
heat; even after passing through a blast furnace, it has 
equally as sharp edges, and is in form exactly as it was 
before. 


U 







306 HAND-BOOK OF MODERN STEAM FIRE-ENGINES. 


COMPOSITION OF DIFFERENT KINDS OF ANTHRA¬ 
CITE COAL. 


Lehigh Coal.... 
Schuylkill Coal 

Pottsville. 

■ Pinegrove. 

Wilkesbarre — 
Carbondale. 


G 

o 

-O 

u 

cZ 

O 

Volatile 

Matter. 

Ashes. 

i 

Specific 

Gravity. 

88.50 

7.50 

4.00 


92.07 

5.03 

2.90 

1.57 

94.10 

1.40 

4.50 

1.50 

79.57 

7.15 

3.28 

1.54 

88.90 

7.68 

3.49 

1.40 

90.23 

7.07 

2.70 

1.40 


The analysis of anthracite shows good coal of that class 
to be composed of 90.45 carbon, 2.43 hydrogen, 2.45 oxy¬ 
gen, some nitrogen, and 4.67 ashes. The ashes generally 
consist, like those of bituminous coal, of silex, alumina, 
oxide of iron, and chlorides, which generally evaporate 
and condense on cold objects in the form of while films. 

Anthracite is not so inflammable as either dry wood or 
bituminous coal, but it may be made to burn quite as 
vividly as either, by exposing it to a strong draught or in 
a large mass to the action of the air. 

The Quantity of Air required for the Combustion of 
Anthracite Coal. — In view of the quantity of oxygen 
required to unite chemically with the various constituents 
of the coal, we find that in 100 pounds of anthracite coal, 
consisting of 91 per cent, of carbon and 9 per cent, of the 
other matter, it will be necessary to have 243.84 pounds 
of oxygen, since to saturate a pound of carbon by the 
formation of carbonic acid requires 2| pounds of oxygen. 
To saturate a pound of hydrogen in the formation of water 
requires 8 pounds of oxygen ; hence, 3.46 pounds of hydro¬ 
gen will take 27.68 pounds of oxygen for its saturation. 
If, then, we add 243.84 pounds of oxygen for its satura- 


























HAND-BOOK OF MODERN STEAM FIRE-ENGINES. 307 


tion, 271.52 pounds of oxygen are required for the com¬ 
bustion of 100 pounds of coal. 

A given weight of air contains nearly 23.32 per cent, 
of oxygen; hence, to obtain 271.52 pounds of oxygen, we 
must have about four times that quantity of atmospheric 
air, or, more accurately, 1164 pounds of air are required 
for the combustion of 100 pounds of coal. A cubic foot 
of air at ordinary temperatures weighs about .075 pound; 
so that 100 pounds of coal require 15,524 cubic feet of 
air, or one pound of coal requires about 155 cubic feet of 
air, supposing every atom of the oxygen to enter into 
combination. If, then, from one-third to one-half of the 
air passes unconsumed through the fire, an allowance of 
240 cubic feet of air for each pound of coal will be a 
small enough allowance to answer all practical require¬ 
ments, and in some cases as many as 320 cubic feet will 
be required. 

The Evaporative Efficiency of a Pound of Anthracite 
Coal. — The evaporative efficiency of a pound of carbon 
has been found, experimentally, to be equivalent to that 
power which is necessary to raise 14,000 pounds of water 
through one degree, or 14 pounds of water through 1000 
degrees, supposing the whole heat generated to be absorbed 
by the water. 

Now, if the water be raised into steam from a temper¬ 
ature of 60°, then 1118.9° of heat will have to be im¬ 
parted to it to convert it into steam of 15 pounds pressure 
per square inch; 14,000 divided by 1118.9 equals 12.5 
pounds will be the number of pounds of water, therefore, 
which a pound of carbon can raise into steam of 15 pounds 
pressure from a temperature of 60°. This, however, is a 
considerably larger result than can be expected in practice. 

Bituminous Coal. — Under this class we range all that 
mineral coal which forms coke, that is, which swells upon 




308 HAND-BOOK OF MODERN STEAM FIRE-ENGINES. 

being exposed to heat, burns with a bright flame, and 
blazes. After the flame disappears there remains a 
spongy, porous mass — coke — which burns without flame, 
like charcoal. In its composition we find chiefly carbon, 
oxygen, hydrogen, nitrogen, sulphur, and ashes, with a 
little water, which has been absorbed by the crevices. 

The following table shows the comparative composition 
of various sorts of mineral fuel: — 



Carbon. 

Hydrogen. 

Oxygen 

and 

Nitrogen. 

Ashes. 

Turf. 

58.09 

5.93 

31.37 

4.61 

Brown Coal. 

71.71 

4.85 

21.67 

1.77 

Hard Bituminous Coal. 

82.92 

6.49 

10.86 

0.13 

Cannel Coal. 

83.75 

5.66 

8.04 

2.55 

Cooking or Baking Coal. 

87.95 

5.24 

5.41 

1.40 

Anthracite. 

91.98 

3.92 

3.16 

0.94 


An essential condition in forming coke is that the coal, 
on being heated, swells and changes into irregular, spongy 
masses, which adhere intimately together. This operation 
is designed to expel sulphur and hydrogen, and form a 
coal which is not altered by heat. The sulphur cannot be 
entirely separated from coke, or from carbon, no matter 
how high the heat may be; nor can all the hydrogen be 
removed from carbon by simply heating the compound. 
If oxygen is admitted to these combinations, both sulpnur 
and hydrogen may be almost entirely expelled, that is, 
provided the oxygen is not introduced under too high or 
too low a heat. 

The most important point, and one which has a direct 
bearing upon the value of coal, is the quantity of heat 
which it can evolve in combustion. If we assume that the 
quantity of ashes is equal in the four substances mentioned 

















HAND-BOOK OF MODERN STEAM FIRE-ENGINES. 


309 


below, that is, 5 per cent, in each, and suppose further that 
pine charcoal furnishes 100 parts of heat, the following 
table shows the quantity which must be liberated in their 
perfect combustion: 


Kind of Coal. 

Carbon. 

Hydro¬ 

gen. 

Water, 

Quantity 
of He. t. 

Brown Coal. 

69 

3 

23 

78 

Cooking Coal. 

75 

4 

16 

87 

U U 

78 

4 

13 

90 

Anthracite Coal. 

85 

3 

7 

94 

Pure Carbon. 

100 

... 

... 

100 


Bituminous coal, like all other fuel, is a compound sub¬ 
stance, which may be decomposed by heat into several dis¬ 
tinct elements — generally five or six, at least. So far as 
relates to combustion, we are concerned principally with 
but two of these, viz., solid carbon, represented by coke, 
and hydrogen, generally known under the indefinite term 
of “gas.’’ These two elements confain principally the 
full heating qualities of the coal. The carbon, so long as 
it remains as such, is always solid and visible. The hy¬ 
drogen, when driven from the coal by heat, carries with it 
a portion of the carbon, the gaseous compound being 
known as carburetted hydrogen. A ton of 2000 pounds of 
average bituminous coal contains, say 1600 pounds, or 80 
per cent, of carbon, 100 pounds, or 5 per cent, of hydrogen, 
and 300 pounds, or 15 per cent, of oxygen, nitrogen, sul¬ 
phur, sand, and ashes. But if this coal be coked, the 100 
pounds of hydrogen driven oh by heat will carry about 
300 pounds of carbon in combination with it, making 400 
pounds, or nearly 1000 cubic feet of carburetted hydrogen 
gas, and 1300 pounds of carbon (65 per cent, of the origi¬ 
nal coal) will be left. With the earthy matter, ashes, sul¬ 
phur, etc., retained with it, the coke will weigh but about 




























310 HAND-BOOK OF MODERN STEAM FIRE-ENGINES. 

1350 or 1400 pounds,—674 to 70 per cent, of the original 
coal. The only proportions in which carbon and hydro¬ 
gen combine with air in combustion are these: For every 
pound of carbon (pure coke), 12 pounds (equal to 1594 
cubic feet) of air are required to combine intimately with 
it. For every pound of hydrogen, 36 pounds fequal to 
478^ cubic feet) of air are required to be similarly com¬ 
bined. Thus for every pound of carburetted hydrogen 
gas, being one-fourth pound of hydrogen and three-fourths 
of a pound of carbon, 18 pounds (equal to 239| cubic feet) 
of air are required to be combined with it. 

These are the elements and their combining proportions 
that have to be dealt with in the furnace of a steam-boiler. 
For every 2000 pounds of coal burned, the 400 pounds of 
carburetted hydrogen, which constitute the “ gas,” require 
95,700 cubic feet of atmospheric air at ordinary tempera¬ 
ture, and the 1300 pounds of solid carbon require 207,350 
cubic feet of air. Practically, the gas from a ton of ordinary 
bituminous coal requires 100,000 cubic feet of air for its 
combustion, while the remaining coke requires 200,000 feet. 

The heating value of any combustible is exactly propor¬ 
tional to the quantity of air with which it will combine in 
combustion. Hence hydrogen, which combines with three 
times the quantity of air (oxygen) which would be taken 
up by carbon, has, for equal weights, three times the heat¬ 
ing value. Thus, the 100 pounds of pure hydrogen in a 
ton of coal have the same heating efficiency as that due to 
300 pounds of the remaining carbon or pure coke. It will 
now be seen that complete combustion cannot produce 
smoke, siuce smoke contains a quantity of unburnt matter, 
and is in itself a proof of incomplete combustion. The 
products of perfect combustion are invisible — being for 
carbon and oxygen, carbonic acid; and for hydrogen and 
oxygen, invisible steam, which condenses into water. 



HAND-BOOK OF MODERN STEAM FIRE-ENGINES. 311 


The admission of heated air to furnaces or fire-boxes 
of locomotives can be of no practical value, since for every 
493° Fab. of heat added, its original bulk or volume is 
doubled; trebled at 1010° Fab., and at 3000° Fab. the 
heated air in the interior of the furnace has six times its 
original volume. This makes it more unmanageable, and 
as its contained oxygen remains the same in weight, its 
mixture with the gas becomes more difficult, while, when 
mixed, it can do only the same work as before. 

Waste of Unburnt Fuel. — This generally arises from the 
brittleness of the fuel, combined with want of care on the 
part of the fireman, from which cause the fuel is made to 
fall into small pieces, which escape between the grate-bars 
into the ash-pit, and are lost. It is almost impossible to 
estimate the loss of fuel occasioned by carelessness and 
bad firing; but the amount which is unavoidable, even 
with care and good firing, has been ascertained by experi¬ 
ment to range from 2^ to 3 per cent, of the fuel consumed. 

TABLE 


SHOWING THE TOTAL HEAT OF COMBUSTION OF VARIOUS FUELS. 


SORT OP FUEL. 

Equivalent 
in pure 
Carbon. 

Evaporative 
power in lbs. 
water from 
212° Fah. 

Total heat of 
combustion 
in lbs. water 
heated 1° Fah. 

Charcoal. 

0.93 

14.00 

13500 

Charred Peat. 

0.80 

12.00 

11600 

Coke — good. 

0.94 

14.00 

13620 

“ mean.. 

0.88 

13.20 

12760 

“ bad. 

0.82 

12.30 

11890 

Coal — Anthracite. 

1.05 

15.75 

15225 

Hard Bituminous — hardest 

1.06 

15.90 

15370 

“ “ softest.. 

0.95 

14.25 

13775 

Cooking coal. 

1.07 

16.00 

15837 

Canning coal. 

1.04 

15.60 

15080 

Long flaming splint coal. 

0.91 

13.65 

13195 

Lignite. 

0.81 

12.15 

11745 

Peat. —Perfectly air-dry.... 

0.66 

10.00 

9660 

Containing 25 per ct. water 


7.25 

7000 

Wood. —Perfectly air-drv... 

0.50 

7.50 

7245 

Containing 20 per ct. water 


5.80 

5600 











































312 HAND-BOOK OF MODERN STEAM FIRE-ENGINES. 


TABLE 


SHOWING THE NATURE AND VALUE OF SEVERAL VARIETIES OF 
AMERICAN COAL AND COKE, AS DEDUCED FROM EXPERIMENTS 
BY PROFESSOR JOHNSON, FOR THE UNITED STATES GOVERNMENT. 


Designation of Fuel. 

Specific 

gravity. 

Weight per 

cubic foot. 

Lbs.ot steam 

from water 

at 212° by 1 

lb. of fuel. 

Lbs. of steam 

from water 

at 212° by 1 

cub.ft.of fuel. 

Weight of 
clinker from 

1001 bs.of fuel. 

No. of cub. ft. 

required to 

stow a ton. 

BITUMINOUS. 







Cumberland, maximum 

1.313 

52.92 

10.7 

573.3 

2.13 

42.3 

“ minimum 

1.337 

54.29 

9.44 

532.3 

4.53 

41.2 

Blossburgh. 

1.324 

53.05 

9.72 

522.6 

3.40 

42.2 

Midlothian, screened.. 

1.283 

45.72 

8.94 

438.4 

3.33 

49.0 

11 average .. 

1.294 

54.04 

8.29 

461.6 

8.82 

41.4 

Newcastle. 

1.257 

50.82 

8.66 

453.9 

3.14 

44.0 

Pictou. 

1.318 

49.25 

8.41 

478.7 

6.13 

45.0 

Pittsburgh. 

1.252 

46.81 

8.20 

384.1 

.94 

47.8 

Sydney. 

1.338 

47.44 

7.99 

386.1 

2.25 

47.2 

Liverpool.. 

1.262 

47.88 

7.84 

411.2 

1.86 

46.7 

Clover Hill. 

1.285 

45.49 

7.67 

359.3 

3.86 

49.2 

Cannelton, la. 

1.273 

47.65 

7.34 

360.0 

1.64 

47.0 

Scotch. 

1.519 

51.09 

6.95 

369.1 

5.63 

43.8 

ANTHRACITE. 







Peach Mountain. 

1.464 

53.79 

10.11 

581.3 

3.03 

41.6 

Forest Improvement... 

1.477 

53.66 

10.06 

5< i .3 

.81 

41.7 

Beaver Meadow No. 5.. 

1.554 

56.19 

9.88 

572.9 

.60 

39.8 

Lackawanna. 

1.421 

48.89 

9.79 

493.0 

1.24 

45.8 

Beaver Meadow No. 3. 

1.610 

54.93 

9.21 

526.5 

1.01 

40.7 

TiP.high. 

1.590 

55.32 

8.93 

515.4 

1.08 

40.5 

COKE. 




Natural Virginia. 

1.323 

46.64 

8.47 

407.9 

5.31 

48-3 

Midlothian. 


32.7C 

8.63 

282.5 

10.51 

68 5 

Cumberland. 


31 57 

8.99 

284.0 

3.55 

70.9 
















































HAND-BOOK OF MODERN STEAM FIRE-ENGINES 


313 


TABLE 

SHOWING SOME OF TIIE PROMINENT QUALITIES IN THE PRINCI¬ 
PAL AMERICAN WOODS. 




>> 


Species. 

Specific gravi 
green. 

Specific gravi 
air-dried. 

Specific gravi 

kiln-dried. 

Hickory. 




White Oak.. 
Black Oak... 

1.07 

0.71 

0.60 

lied Oak. 

1.05 

0 .G8 

0.66 

Beech. 

0.08 

0 59 

0.58 

Birch. 

0.90 

0.03 

0.57 

Maple. 

0.90 

0.64 

0.61 

Yellow Pine 

Chestnut. 




Pitch Pine... 




White Pine.. 

0.87 

0,47 

0.38 


cc jz: 

rC >» • 

O 

2 <u 

a 

§1 

o> 

. « n 

o S3 
£ 

Cl • 

1 s 

"85 

c 

P’S 

J*. o « 
ig n 
So 

jr C< 

£ « 

•ft o 
c 

ej M 

3 « 

ft—■ 

.f'H 

O) o 

c3 

ft 

ft 

O' 

£ J 

ft 

3000 

44.G9 

25 

4496 

1.00 

3000 

21.62 

25 

3821 

0.81 

3000 

23.80 

25 

3254 

0.71 

3000 

22.43 

25 

3254 

0.69 

3000 

32.36 

25 

3236 

0.65 

3000 

3000 


25 



27.00 

25 

2700 

0.57 

2800 

24.63 

23 

2463 

0.54 

3000 

25.25 

25 

2333 

0.52 

2800 

19.04 

23 

1904 

0.43 

2800 

18.68 

23 

1868 

0.42 


TABLE 

SHOWING THE RELATIVE PROPERTIES OF GOOD COKE, COAL, 

AND WOOD. 


Name of Fuel. 

Weiglit per cubic foot, in 
pounds. 

Degrees of heat generated. 

Percentage of carbon in 
the fuel. 

Economical bulk, or cubic 
feet required to stow one 

ton. 

Economic or stowage 
weight per cubic foot. 

Cubic feet of air to evapo¬ 
rate one pound of water. 

Equivalent economic bulk, 
to evaporate same weight 
of water. 

Weight of water evapo¬ 
rated per pound of fuel 
in ordinary practice. 

Relative value as fuel, dis¬ 
regarding actual cost. 

Coke. 

63 

4300 

95 

80 

28 

22.4 

13 

8.1 

100 

Coal. 

80 

4000 

88 

44 

51 

32.0 

10 

6 

71 

Wood. 

30 

2800 

20 

107 

21 

16.0 

60 

24 

29 


27 










































































314 HAND-BOOK OF MODERN STEAM FIRE-ENGINES. 


ENTIRE COAL PRODUCTIONS OF THE WORLD. 

The entire annual coal yield of the world is estimated 
at 250,000,000 of tons, and its value exceeds that of all 
the other ores mined. The total coal yield of England, 
in 1871, was valued at $92,000,000, while that of all 
other mineral products, including refractory clays, mineral 
salts, phosphorites, etc., did not exceed $62,000,000. In 
Germany and France, the same excess in favor of coal 
also appears. 

The aggregate production of 250,000,000 tons in 1872 
was made up by the various countries in the world con¬ 
tributing as follows: Great Britain, 123,000,000; United 
States, 40,000,000; Germany, 40,000,000; France, 15,- 
900,000; Belgium, 15,600,000; Austria and Hungary, 
10,000,000; Spain, 1,000,000; Russia, 800,000; and the 
English Colonies, China, Chili, and Japan, 3,700,000. 
The total value of all minerals mined in the world in 
1872 amounted to $320,000,000, and that of coal to 
$610,000,000, or nearly double. 

SPONTANEOUS COMBUSTION. 

The chemical action known as spontaneous combus¬ 
tion is frequently the cause of fire, and great care should 
be taken in storing all materials likely to become the 
means of causing fire by this peculiarity. There can be 
no doubt that many fires, whose origin it has been difficult 
to explain, have arisen from this cause; and it is known 
that greasy or oily cotton, saw-dust, etc., if left long 
enough undisturbed, undergo a change, and finally ignite, 
setting fire to whatever inflammable material may be in 
their immediate vicinity. Even the decomposition of 
some kinds of coal in large bins, or in the holds of vessels, 


HAND-BOOK OF MODERN STEAM FIRE-ENGINES. 315 


has been known to be the cause of some very disastrous 
and lamentable fires. 

Spontaneous ignition has been known to take place in 
the cotton wipings, or waste employed for wiping the oil, 
etc., from machinery; and there is little doubt that many 
fires, for which no apparent cause could be assigned, have 
thus originated. Even the putrefaction of vegetable mat¬ 
ter has been known to occasion the development of so much 
heat as to sometimes cause its ignition. Galletly, who in¬ 
vestigated the subject, found that cotton-waste soaked in 
boiled linseed-oil, and wrung out, if exposed to a tempera¬ 
ture of 170°, set up oxidation so rapidly as to cause actual 
combustion in 105 minutes. It is important to note these 
facts, as they may be of great benefit to the owners and 
occupants of shops and factories. 


TABLE 

SHOWING THE TEMPERATURE AT WHICH DIFFERENT COMBUSTIBLE 

SUBSTANCES WILL IGNITE. 


Temp, of 


Substances. Ignition. 

Phosphorus. 140° 

Bisulphide of carbon. 300° 

Fulminating powder. 374° 

Fulminate of mercury. 392° 

Equal parts of chlorate of 

potash and sulphur. 395° 

Sulphur. 400° 

Gun-cotton. 428° 

Nitro-glycerine. 494° 

Rifle powder. 550° 

Gunpowder, coarse. 563° 

Picrate of mercury, lead or 
iron. 565° 


Temp, of 


Substances. Ignition. 

Picrate powder for torpe¬ 
does. 570° 

Picrate powder for muskets. 576° 
Charcoal, the most inflam¬ 
mable willow used for 

gunpowder. 580° 

Charcoal, made by distil¬ 
ling wood at 500°. 660° 

Charcoal, made at 600°. 700° 

Picrate powder for cannon. 716° 

Very dry wood, pine. 800° 

Oak.*.. 900° 

Steam at 240 lbs. pressure 
per square inch. 403° 


It will be seen from the above that steam, even at 

























316 HAND-BOOK OF MODERN STEAM FIRE-ENGINES. 

this extraordinary high pressure, has a temperature not 
quite equal to one-lialf that required to ignite dry pine 
wood. The question will then naturally arise, are the 
steam-pipes used for heating buildings, having a temper¬ 
ature not generally more than from 250° to 300°, capa¬ 
ble of firing wood. On this subject there seems to be a 
wide difference of opinion, for while it is held by some 
that such is the fact, it is claimed by others that no press¬ 
ure of steam used for heating or manufacturing purposes, 
is of a sufficiently high temperature to produce such re¬ 
sults. Still, it cannot be denied, that fires have frequently 
originated from steam-pipes, and at long distances from 
the boiler; and there can be no doubt that wood exposed 
to heat for a long time undergoes a process of semi-car¬ 
bonization, and that the longer the process has been going 
on, the more readily the wood will ignite from any cause. 
How long it actually takes to effect this change in the 
wood, has never as yet been satisfactorily settled. Ex¬ 
periments are much needed to determine this important 
point. 

When steam-pipes for heating purposes are properly 
put up, they may be regarded as safer than any mode of 
heating yet introduced into manufactories. The pipes 
should be (as most are in these days) supported on small 
iron hooks or brackets, removed at least one inch from 
any woodwork; and, when the main or conducting pipes 
pass through the floor or any wood partition, the hole 
should be larger than the diameter of the pipe, and a 
collar of tile, plaster of paris, asbestos, or some other good 
non-conducting substance inserted in it, through which 
the pipe should pass, leaving a space of at least half an 
inch around it. In the case of large pipes, the space 
should be proportionally large. The dust that accumu¬ 
lates on the top of steam-pipes should be frequently swept 


HAND-BOOK OF MODERN STEAM FIRE-ENGINES. 317 


off, and any dirt that may collect around, behind, or under 
them should be removed daily. The exercise of such 
precautions will render steam-heating apparatus perfectly 
safe. 

The practice of covering main steam-pipes with wood 
is a very mischievous one, as, by enclosing steam-pipes in 
air-tight cases, the temperature may be indefinitely raised, 
until the point of inflammability is attained, so that if any 
part of the steam-pipes for heating purposes must be 
covered, some good non-conducting substance should in¬ 
variably be used for that purpose. All steam-pipes run¬ 
ning near floors or ceilings should be left exposed to the 
air, unless covered by some non-conductor, as, when heated 
bodies are exposed to the air, they lose portions of their 
heat by projection in right lines into space from all parts 
of their surface. This is called the radiation of heat. 

STEAM. 

Steam is the elastic fluid into which water is converted 
by the continued application of heat. It may be said to 
be the result of the combination of water with a certain 
amount of heat, and the expansive force of steam arises 
from the absence of cohesion in the particles of water. 

The mechanical properties of vapor are similar to those 
of gases in general. The most important property to be 
considered, in the case of steam, is the elastic pressure. 
When a vapor or gas is contained in a close vessel, the 
inner surface of the vessel will sustain a pressure arising 
from the elasticity of the fluid. This pressure is produced 
by the mutual repulsion of the particles, which gives them 
a tendency to fly asunder, and causes the mass of the fluid 
to exert a force tending to burst any vessel within which 
it is confined. This pressure is uniformly diffused over 
27* 









318 HAND-BOOK OF MODERN STEAM FIRE-ENGINES. 

every part of the surface of the vessel in which such a 
fluid is contained: it is to this quality that all the me¬ 
chanical power of steam is due. 

Heat universally expands all matter within its influence, 
whether solid or fluid. But in a solid body it has the co¬ 
hesion of the particles to overcome; and this so circum¬ 
scribes its effect, that in cast-iron, for instance, a degree of 
temperature above the freezing-point sufficient to melt it 
causes an extension of only about one-eighth of an inch 
in a foot. With water, however, a temperature of 212°, 
or 180° above the freezing-point (which is far from a red 
heat), converts it into steam of 1700 times its original 
bulk or volume. 

Steam cannot mix with air while its pressure exceeds 
that of the atmosphere; and it is this property, with that 
which makes the condition of a body dependent on its 
temperature, that explains the condensing property of 
steam. In a cylinder once filled with steam of a pressure 
of 15 pounds or more to the square inch, all air is ex¬ 
cluded ; now, as the existence of the steam depends on its 
temperature, by abstracting that temperature (which may 
be done by immersing the cylinder in cold water or cold 
air), the contained steam assumes the condition due to the 
reduced temperature, and this state will be water. 

The latent or concealed heat of steam is one of the 
most noteworthy properties. The latent heat of steam, 
though showing no effect on the thermometer, may be as 
easily known as the sensible or perceptible heat. To show 
this property of steam by experiment, place an indefinite 
amount of water in a closed vessel, and let a pipe, pro¬ 
ceeding from its upper part, communicate with another 
vessel, which should be open, and which, for convenience of 
illustration, should contain just 51 pounds of water at 32°, 
or just freezing. The pipe from the closed vessel must 


HAND-BOOK OF MODERN STEAM FIRE-ENGINES. 319 

reach nearly to the bottom of the open one. By boiling 
the water contained in the first vessel until steam enough 
has passed through the pipe to raise the water in the open 
vessel to the boiling-point (212° Fall.), we shall find the 
weight of the water contained by the latter to be 61 
pounds. Now, this addition of one pound to its weight 
has resulted solely from the admission of steam to it; and 
this pound of steam, therefore, retaining its own tempera¬ 
ture of 212°, has raised 5k pounds of water 180°, or an 
equivalent to 990°, and, including its own temperature, 
we have 1201°, which it must have possessed at first. The 
sum of the latent and sensible heat of steam is in all cases 
nearly constant, and does not vary much from 1200°. 

The elasticity of steam increases with an increase in 
the temperature applied, but not in the same ratio. If 
steam is generated from water at a temperature which 
gives it the same pressure as the atmosphere, an additional 
temperature of 38° will give it the pressure of two atmos¬ 
pheres ; a still further addition of 42° gives it the tension 
of four atmospheres; and with each successive addition of 
temperature of between 40° and 50° the pressure becomes 
doubled. 

An established relation must exist between the temper¬ 
ature and elasticity of steam; in other words, water at 
212° Fah. must be under the pressure of the steam natu¬ 
rally resulting from that temperature, and so at any other 
temperature. If this natural pressure on the surface of 
the water be removed without a corresponding reduction 
in the temperature, a violent ebullition of the water is the 
immediate result. Another result attending the formation 
of steam is, that, when an engine is in operation and work¬ 
ing off a proper supply of steam, the water-level in the 
boiler artificially rises, showing by the gauge-cocks a 
greater supply than that which really exists. 







320 HAND-BOOK OF MODERN STEAM FIRE-ENGINES. 

As the pressure of steam is increased, the sensible heat 
is augmented, and the latent heat undergoes a correspond¬ 
ing diminution, and vice versa. The sum of the sensible 
and latent heat is, in fact, a constant quantity; the one 
being always increased at the expense of the other. It 
has been shown that to convert water at 32° of tempera¬ 
ture, and under a pressure of 15 pounds per square inch, 
into steam, it was necessary first to give it 180° additional 
sensible heat, and afterwards 990° of latent heat, the 
total heat imparted to it being 1170°. Such, then, is the 
actual quantity of heat which must be imparted to ice- 
cold water to convert it into steam. The actual tempera¬ 
ture to which water would be raised by the heat necessary 
to evaporate it, if its evaporation could be prevented by 
confining it in a close vessel, will be found by adding 32° 
to 1170°. It may, therefore, be stated that the heat 
necessary for the evaporation of ice-cold water is as much 
as would raise it to the temperature of 1202°, if its evap¬ 
oration were prevented. If the temperature of red-hot 
iron be, as it is supposed, 800° or 900°, and if all bodies 
become incandescent at the same temperature, it follows 
that to evaporate water it is necessary to impart to it 400° 
more heat than would be sufficient to render it red hot, if 
its evaporation were prevented. 

It has been asserted in some scientific works, that by 
mere mechanical compression steam will be converted 
into water. This is, however, an error; since steam, in 
whatever state it may exist, must possess at least 212° of 
heat; and as this quantity of heat is sufficient to maintain 
it in the form of vapor under whatever pressure it may 
be placed, it is clear that no compression or increase of 
pressure can diminish the actual quantity of heat con¬ 
tained in the steam, and it cannot, therefore, convert any 
portion of the steam into power. 


HAND-BOOK OF MODERN STEAM FIRE-ENGINES. 321 


Steam, by mechanical pressure, if forced into a dimin¬ 
ished volume, will undergo an augmentation both of tem¬ 
perature and pressure, the increase of temperature being 
greater than the diminution of volume; in fact, any 
change of volume which it undergoes will be attended 
with the change of temperature and pressure indicated in 
the table on pages 338, 33b 1 . The steam, after its volume has 
been changed, will assume exactly the pressure and tem¬ 
perature which it would have in the same volume if it were 
immediately evolved from water. 

Let us suppose a cubic inch of water converted into 
steam, under a pressure of 15 pounds per scpiare inch, at 
the temperature of 212°. Then let its volume be reduced 
by compression in the proportion of 1700 to 930. When 
so reduced, its pressure will be found to have risen from 
15 pounds per square inch to 29? pounds per square inch ; 
but this is exactly the condition as to pressure, temperature, 
and density which the steam would assume if it were imme¬ 
diately raised from water under the pressure of 29? pounds 
per square inch. It appears, therefore, that in whatever 
manner, after evaporation, the density of steam be changed, 
whether by expansion or contraction, it will still remain 
the same as if it were immediately raised from water in its 
actual state. The circumstance which has given rise to 
the erroneous notion that mere mechanical compression 
will produce a condensation of steam, is that the vessel in 
which steam is contained must necessarily have the same 
temperature as the steam itself. 

Water while passing into steam suffers a great enlarge¬ 
ment of volume; steam, on the other hand, in being con¬ 
verted into water, undergoes a corresponding diminution 
of volume. It has been seen that a cubic inch of water, 
evaporated at the temperature of 212°, swells into 1700 
cubic inches of steam. It follows, therefore, that if a 

V 







£22 HAND-BOOK OF MODERN STEAM FIRE-ENGINES. 

closed vessel, containing 1700 cubic inches of steam, be 
exposed to cold sufficient to take from the steam all its 
latent heat, the steam will be reconverted into water, will 
shrink into its original dimensions, and will leave the re¬ 
mainder of the vessel a vacuum. This property of steam 
has supplied the means, in practical mechanics, of obtain¬ 
ing that amount of mechanical power which the properties 
of the atmosphere confer upon a vacuum. 

The temperature and pressure of steam produced by 
immediate evaporation, when it has received no heat save 
that which it takes from the water, have a fixed relation 
one to the other. If this relation was known and expressed 
by a mathematical formula,the temperature might always 
be inferred from the pressure, and vice versa. But phys¬ 
ical science has not yet supplied any principle by which 
such a formula can be deduced from any known proper¬ 
ties of liquids. The same difficulty which attends the 
laying down of a general formula expressing the relation 
between the temperatures and pressures of steam, also at¬ 
tends the determination of one expressing the relation be¬ 
tween the pressure and the augmented volume into which 
water expands by evaporation. 

In the preceding observations, steam has been consid¬ 
ered as receiving no heat except that which it takes from 
the water during the process of evaporation ; the amount 
of which heat, as has been shown, is 1170° more than that 
contained in ice-cold water. But steam, after having 
been formed from water by evaporation, may, like all other 
material substances, receive an accession of heat from any 
external source, and its temperature may therefore be 
elevated. 

If the steam to which such additional heat is imparted 
be so confined as to be incapable of enlarging its dimen¬ 
sions, the effect produced upon it by the increase of tern- 


HAND-BOOK OF MODERN STEAM FIRE-ENGINES. 323 


perature will be an increase of pressure. But if, on the 
other hand, it be confined under a given pressure, with 
power to enlarge its volume, and subject to the preserva¬ 
tion of that pressure, as would be the case if it were con¬ 
tained in a cylinder under a movable piston loaded with 
a given pressure, then the effect of the augmented temper¬ 
ature will be, not an increase of pressure, but an increase 
of volume; and the increase of volume, in this latter case, 
will be in exactly the same proportion as the increase of 
pressure in the former case. 

These effects of elevated temperature are common 
not only to the vapors of all liquids, but also to all perma¬ 
nent gases; but, what is much more remarkable, the nu¬ 
merical amount of the augmentation of pressure or volume 
produced by a given increase of temperature is the same 
for all vapors and gases. If the pressure which any gas 
or vapor would have (were it reduced to the temperature 
of melting ice) be expressed by 100,000, the pressure 
which it will receive for every degree of temperature by 
which it is raised will be expressed by 2081; or, what 
amounts to the same thing, the additional pressure pro¬ 
duced by each degree of temperature will be the 480th 
part of its pressure at the temperature of melting ice. 

Steam of atmospheric pressure occupies 1669 times the 
volume of the water from which it is raised, and as a cubic 
foot of water weighs 62.4 pounds, a cubic foot of steam of 
atmospheric pressure weighs about .038 pound. In order 
to exert a pressure by its mere dead weight of 14.7 pounds 
per square inch, such steam of uniform density would have 
to stand at a height of 101 miles,—the velocity due to a 
fall from this height in 1888 feet per second,— and this, 
accordingly, i3 the velocity with which steam of atmos¬ 
pheric pressure enters a vacuum. And if the velocity of 
steam were inversely as its pressure, this would be the 







324 HAND-BOOK OF MODERN STEAM FIRE-ENGINES. 

• 

velocity of steam of every pressure in moving into a 
vacuum, since, so far as generating effluent velocity is 
concerned, the mere elasticity of a gas is inoperative. 

The effluent velocity of steam into the atmosphere or 
into steam of lower pressure, then, has to be carefully con¬ 
sidered in the treatment of steam-engines. In the follow¬ 
ing table, the pressure given in pounds above the atmos¬ 
phere is 0.3 pound less than the pressure employed in 
making the calculation: 


Pressure above 
the Atmosphere. 

Velocity of Escape 
per Second. 

Pressure above 
the Atmosphere. 

Velocity of Escape 
per Second. 

Pounds. 

Feet. 

Pounds. 

Feet. 

1 

540 

50 

1,736 

2 

698 

60 

1,777 

3 

814 

70 

1,810 

4 

905 

80 

1,835 

5 

981 

90 

1,857 

10 

1,232 

100 

1,875 

20 

1,476 

110 

1,889 

30 

1,601 

120 

1,900 

40 

1,681 

130 

1,909 


To saturated steam, or steam as it rises from the water 
from which it is generated, these calculations of course 
only apply. Whatever may be the pressure per square 
inch common to different conditions of steam, the effluent 
velocity will be inversely as the square root of the specific 
gravity of steam. If the steam be superheated, its specific 
gravity for a given pressure will be diminished, and its 
velocity of escape into the air or into a vacuum will be 
increased. If, on the contrary, the steam carry with it any 
suspended moisture, its specific gravity for a given press¬ 
ure will be increased and its velocity of escape diminished. 

A very important question will probably arise in the 
mind of the reader as to the amount of work that a given 






















HAND-BOOK OF MODERN STEAM FIRE-ENGINES. 325 


weight of steam is capable of performing. A pound of 
steam, having a pressure of 120 pounds above that of the 
atmosphere, is virtually a pound of water heated 1681 de¬ 
grees above the absolute zero of a perfect gas thermometer, 
1220° above Fahrenheit’s zero, 1188 degrees above the 
freezing-point, or 1118° above the sensible temperature of 
steam of one pound absolute pressure per square inch, the 
lowest pressure at which a condensing-engine could be ex¬ 
pected to work. Either of these total temperatures, mul¬ 
tiplied by 772, will give the energy in foot-pounds theo¬ 
retically due to the steam when worked down, say into 
water of the corresponding temperature. 

But it must be remembered that, as a gas (to which 
steam in this case is necessarily compared) it would, upon 
the accepted law of expansion, only lose its elasticity at a' 
temperature below the freezing-point. If we work down 
to 102°, the temperature of water from which steam of 
one pound total pressure would escape, we shall have an 
energy, for one pound weight of steam, of 863,096 foot¬ 
pounds ; and if 10 pounds of steam be evaporated from 
102° by one pound of coal, giving 8,630,960 foot-pounds 
per pound of coal, an engine working up to the full 
power of the steam would require but = 0.23 

pound, or less than four ounces of coal per indicated horse¬ 
power per hour, an hourly horse-power being 33,000 X 60 
= 1,980,000 foot-pounds. To obtain such a result,, the 
steam must in the very act of doing work be reduced to 
one pound of water at 102°. This, however, is quite a 
theoretical calculation, and nothing like it could, with our 
present knowledge, be attempted in practice; especially, 
as, in expanding, the steam is constantly losing heat and 
liquefying in the very act of doing work, and thus losing 
pressure apart from the loss due to the apparent enlarge¬ 
ment of volume. 

28 





326 HAND-BOOK OF MODERN STEAM FIRE-ENGINES. 

Steam which receives additional heat after its separa¬ 
tion from the water from which it is evolved has been called 
superheated steam , to distinguish it from common steam , 
which is that usually employed in steam-engines. Super¬ 
heated steam admits of losing a part of its heat without 
suffering partial condensation ; but common steam is always 
partially condensed, if any portion of heat be withdrawn 
from it. But it must be remembered, that any additional 
arrangements for heating the steam can but complicate the 
machinery, and thus require increase of space, besides 
adding to the cost of the engine. But these objections are 
more serious in the case of the marine engine, the boilers 
of which are generally fed with sea-water strongly im¬ 
pregnated with various salts, and particularly with chlo¬ 
ride of sodium. At the usual temperature of the steam 
used for working these engines, which is generally from 
250° to 270°, the presence of this salt causes no incon¬ 
venience ; but when the steam is superheated, chemical 
decomposition ensues; the chlorine thus set free attacks all 
the brass work of the engine with which it comes in con¬ 
tact, the valve and valve-seats are speedily destroyed, and 
the engine put out of order. 

But there can be no doubt whatever that the use of 
superheated steam is more economical than that of ordi¬ 
nary saturated steam. In some of the scientific reports 
on this subject, it has been shown that there is a saving 
of from 20 to 25 per cent, in the fuel consumed. This 
fact has induced inventors to turn their attention to the 
task of devising some practical appliances for producing 
steam in this superheated condition. 

Motion of Steam. — Steam, if unimpeded, moves with 
great velocity from one inclosure to another, under very 
slight differences of pressure. The laws which regulate 
this movement, though apparently of a simple character, 


HAND-BOOK OF MODERN STEAM FIRE-ENGINES. 327 


are not so easily reduced to exact formulae as would seem 
desirable. All the rules, therefore, which are given, must 
be taken with due reserve and with important qualifica¬ 
tions. The conditions of the free motion of steam will be 
exhibited as nearly as science has been able to estimate 
them. 

These conditions are three: Steam may flow into a 
vacuum, or into the atmosphere, or into steam of less 
density. The conditions of its flow in all these cases are 
of course entirely different. In the middle case — that 
of its flow into the atmosphere — about 15 pounds of its 
total pressure go for nothing, being expended in over¬ 
coming the atmospheric resistance, and before the slightest 
motion of its own or impulse to any other body is possible. 
The law applicable to non-elastic fluids is the same as that 
which applies to gases and steam. 

Volume and Weight of Steam. —Seventy-five cubic feet 
of steam at a pressure of 140 pounds per square inch weigh 
26 pounds. Five cubic feet of steam at a pressure of 75 
pounds per square inch weigh 1 pound. One cubic foot 
of steam at a pressure of 15 pounds per square inch weighs 
.038 pound. 

Steam, at any given pressure, always stands at a certain 
temperature, which is termed the “temperature due to the 
pressure.” Steam follows very nearly the same law to 
which all other gaseous bodies are subject in acquiring ad¬ 
ditional degrees of heat. This law is, briefly, as follows: 
That all gaseous bodies expand equally for equal additions 
of temperature; and that the progressive rate of expan¬ 
sion is equal for equal increments of temperature. 

If two volumes of steam of the same weight be com¬ 
pared, we institute a comparison between their relative 
volumes; since, being of the same weight, they are pro¬ 
duced from the same quantity of water. The relative 




328 HAND-BOOK OF MODERN STEAM FIRE-ENGINES. 

volume of steam being the absolute volume divided by 
the volume of water from which it was produced, the ratio 
of any two relative volumes of steam is the same as the 
ratio of their absolute volumes. So also with steam held 
in contact with the water in the boiler,-—the. pressure 
exhibited by the gauge corresponds to the same temper¬ 
ature in the boiler, and the temperature in the boiler will 
always give the same corresponding pressure of steam. 
Therefore, if we increase the temperature, we increase 
the pressure and density, and, of course, get the greatest 
pressure and density that steam can have at that temper¬ 
ature. 

The table on page 338 shows that the saving of fuel is 
in proportion to the increase of pressure — the advantage 
of generating and using high-pressure steam is thereby 
made apparent. The table also shows that the last 10 
pounds of additional pressure require only four degrees 
of heat to raise it; whereas, the first 10 pounds of pressure 
above the atmosphere require 29 additional degrees of heat 
to raise it—showing a difference of 25 degrees. It also 
shows that at 212° the total heat of steam is 1178.1°, which 
gives a difference of 966.1°. This heat, usually termed 
latent, is absorbed in performing the work of expanding 
the particles of water from the solid to the gaseous state. 
Now, suppose the water is evaporated at 60 pounds press¬ 
ure, the steam will have a temperature of 307°, and a 
total heat of 1207°. If the feed has been introduced at 
60°, it is evident that 1147° of heat have been imparted. 

As the amount evaporated is inversely proportional to 
the quantity of heat required, we have 1147 -4- 966 = 1.2. 
Multiplying by this factor, the quantity evaporated at 60 
pounds pressure from 60°, we obtain the amount that would 
be evaporated at 212° by the same quantity of fuel. 

By the table (page 338) will be seen the comparatively 


HAND-BOOK OF MODERN STEAM FIRE-ENGINES. 329 


small increase of heat required to evaporate water at 
higher pressures. Suppose we take water evaporated at 
45 pounds pressure from a feed temperature of 60°, then 
each pound of water will require 1202.7°— 60 = 1142.7° 
for its conversion into steam. 

If we take the pressure at 100 pounds, we shall have 
1216.5 — 60= 1156.5° as the quantity required. The 
difference between these two total quantities is only 13.8°, 
and is so small as to be scarcely worth considering. 
Leaving out of account the loss due to the slight reduc¬ 
tion of the conducting power of the material, the increased 
amount of heat required for the higher pressure will be 
only of the total heat required at 60 pounds. The 
economy of using steam of a high pressure is clearly . 
manifest when, at the same time, advantage is taken of the 
facilities it offers for working expansively in the cylinder. 

Theory has long since demonstrated the economical ad¬ 
vantages to be derived from the use of high steam press¬ 
ures combined with high grades of expansion in the 
cylinder. The practical difficulties that stood in the way 
having been gradually and successfully overcome, the re¬ 
sult has been the marked changes from the 7 pound and 
10 pound pressures, so common forty years ago, to the 
pressures of from 80 pounds to 100 pounds, at present 
employed; and the more general employment of the higher 
pressures will be demanded as the advantages of using 
steam expansively become more generally recognized. 

ECONOMY OF WORKING STEAM EXPANSIVELY. 

There are two modes of applying the power of steam 

to the working-cylinders of steam-engines, namely: One, 
allowing steam to flow from the boiler during the whole 
length of the stroke; and the other, cutting it off from 
28* 



330 HAND-BOOK OF MODERN STEAM FIRE-ENGINES. 

the boiler when the piston has travelled a determined 
distance — the great and paramount object of this last 
arrangement being a saving of fuel. 

If steam be applied the full length of the stroke, the 
average pressure will be as the pressure per square inch 
upon the piston; but if the steam be cut off at half 
stroke,— suppose the pressure to be 65 pounds per inch 
when the pressure of the atmosphere is added,— there 
will be a mean equivalent, or average pressure, through¬ 
out the stroke of 55 pounds per square inch, being only 
10 pounds less than the full pressure, or 16 per cent, of a 
loss in power, though half the former quantity of steam 
has only been used. This alone effects a saving of 34 per 
. cent, in fuel, and shows the great benefit to be derived 
from expansion in one cylinder. 

If this principle be true, and its truth is undeniable, it 
is quite evident that the greatest economy will result from 
extending to their full limit the cylinders of steam-engines, 
and making them of sufficient capacity for this purpose; 
though with the high-pressures, with which expansion is 
most available, they will require to be less than are usually 
made, to allow the engines to produce the maximum effect. 

The expansive property of steam is strictly mechani¬ 
cal, and is a property common to all fluids — air, gas, etc. 
It simply consists in this — that vapor of a given elastic 
force will expand to certain limits, and during the process 
of expansion will act on opposing bodies with a force 
gradually decreasing, causing a diminution of elastic 
power in an inverse ratio of the increase of volume, until 
it has reached the limits of its power, or is counterbalanced 
by the resistance of a surrounding medium. Thus, steam 
of any given pressure, expanded to twice its origiual bulk, 
will exert only one-half its original power. 

If a partial vacuum be formed on one side of a piston, 


HAND-BOOK OF MODERN STEAM FIRE-ENGINES. 331 


its motion will be continued until the density of the steam 
on the other side be as low as that of the uncondensed 
vapor on the vacuum side of the piston. It is clear that 
the power which may be obtained by thus impelling a 
piston will be the average between the highest and the 
lowest pressure upon the piston. It must also be under¬ 
stood that it is a saving , and not a gain , that thus results 
from expansion ; a power being made available which was 
before lost, by using the steam up to its last 'impelling 
force, and not allowing it to escape until the whole of that 
available force has been expended. 

This accounts for some engines using more fuel and 
steam than others, because the steam is not expanded to 
its utmost limit, in consequence of the steam not being cut 
off by the valve soon enough, or because the load on the 
engine is great, and requires the steam to be longer on the 
piston before it is cut off. If the load on the engine be 
such as to allow the steam to be cut off early, and to ex¬ 
pand to its full available limits in the cylinder, then the 
most will have been made of it; the highest pressure in 
the boiler will have been used upon the piston and down 
to the lowest point. 

Were atmospheric air compressed so as to exert a force 
of 20 pounds on the square inch, and were the supply to 
be continued throughout the stroke, an impulse would be 
given to the piston equal to 20 pounds to the square inch 
during the whole stroke; but if the air was allowed to 
expand, the impulse would only be as the average, or 10 
pounds. It will be evident that, if in the former case the 
air was suffered to depart from the cylinder at the same 
elasticity as that at which it entered, we should lose the force 
which was necessary to compress it to its density; while, 
by expanding it to its limits, we apply every part of that 
force. The main-spring of a watch actuates its machinery 






332 HAND-BOOK OF MODERN STEAM FIRE-ENGINES. 

in this manner: an increasing effort is required to wind 
up the spring, and a decreasing impulse is given back to 
the machinery. But if, after the spring had partially un¬ 
coiled itself, it were then liberated, the force which wound 
it up to its last impelling point would be totally lost. So 
in the steam-engine; if the steam be allowed to escape 
from the cylinder before its force is expanded to the lowest 
available pressure, the loss will be in proportion to the 
amount of the pressure not made available. 

A certain quantity of fuel is required to raise steam to 
a certain elasticity. If that steam be allowed, after hav¬ 
ing moved the piston, to escape into the atmosphere or 
condenser without having acted expansively, a portion of 
the fuel which was consumed to raise the steam up to that 
point of elasticity will have been lost. In one case, a 
given bulk of fuel would produce fifty; in the other case, 
it would produce fifty, added to all the intermediates down 
to the lowest expansive force. By this it will be apparent 
that the advantages arising from expansion increase with 
the density of the steam. In round numbers, 65 pounds 
of high-pressure steam will perform more than seven times 
the duty of 25 pounds of low-pressure steam; a fact greatly 
in favor of high-pressure steam and expansion. 

Expansion is, perhaps, the most extraordinary property 
of steam. The merit of the discovery is due to Horn- 
blower, who, in 1781, obtained a patent for the invention. 
The principle of expanding the steam in the condensing en¬ 
gine is the same as in the non-condensing engine, with this 
exception,—the steam which exhausts into the atmosphere 
cannot expand below 15 pounds per square inch, because 
the exhaust is open to the pressure of the atmosphere in 
all cases. The resistance of the atmosphere (15 pounds) 
must be added to the pressure of steam above atmospheric 
pressure, when calculating the pressure of the expansion 
of steam upon the piston. 


HAND-BOOK OF MODERN STEAM FIRE-ENGINES. 333 


Example. — Steam at 20 pounds pressure above the 
atmosphere upon the piston, cut off at one-fourth the stroke, 
will be 8 | pounds at the termination of the stroke, as 
shown by the following calculation: 20 pounds added to 15 
pounds, the pressure of the atmosphere, equal 35 pounds. 
This divided by four gives the quotient, 84 pounds. Thus, 
8 ! pounds is the pressure at the termination of the stroke, 
or 61 pounds below atmospheric pressure. 

The tables on pages and oo7 show the average 
pressure of steam upon the piston when cut off at any 
portion of the stroke, beginning at 25 pounds and advanc¬ 
ing in 5 pounds up to 135 pounds per square inch, thereby 
enabling the engineer to determine, at any given pressure, 
the amount of expansion requisite to obtain the full power 
to be obtained, and the saving thereby to be effected. I 11 all 
cases the pressure of the atmosphere must be added to the 
pressure of the steam above the atmosphere, when reference 
is made to the table for the average throughout the stroke. 

Example. —45 pounds of steam above atmosphere upon 
the piston of a high-pressure engine, cut off at one-fourth of 
the length of the stroke. The average pressure through- 
out.will be, allowing one pound for friction and back press¬ 
ure to force out the steam in the cylinder, 19! pounds. 
Thus: 45 pounds of steam cut off at one-fourth the stroke, 
with 15 pounds added, make 60 pounds. Look for 60 011 
the top line of the table and 1 on the side. Trace that 1 
to the figures under 60, and the average will be found to 
be 35! pounds. Take 16 pounds from 35! pounds for 
atmospheric pressure and friction, and there remain 19! 
pounds, the available average pressure on the piston. 

Example. —30 pounds cut off at one-third. Add 15=45. 
The average in the table will be 31 2 ; deduct 16 pounds, 
and there remain 15£ pounds, the available average press¬ 
ure upon the piston. 








334 IIAND-BOOIv OF MODERN STEAM FIRE-ENGINES. 

Another Example. —15 pounds cut off at half-stroke. 
Add 15 = 30. The average in the table will be 251. 
Deduct 16 pounds, and 91 pounds remain, the available 
pressure. In these examples the steam in the cylinder 
has expanded to atmospheric pressure. In proportion to 
the pressure of the steam, the cut-off will have to be 
varied, if the steam is to be expanded to its full limit in 
the cylinder of a non-condensing engine; that is, down to 
15 pounds, or equal to the pressure of the atmosphere. 

Rule for ascertaining the Amount of Benefit to be 
derived from working Steam expansively. — Divide the 
length of the stroke by the length of space into which 
steam is admitted; find in the annexed table the hyper¬ 
bolic logarithm nearest to that of the quotient, to which 
add one. The sum is the ratio of gain. 

TABLE 


OF HYPERBOLIC LOGARITHMS TO BE USED IN CONNECTION WITH 

THE ABOVE RULE. 


No. 

Logarithm. 

No. 

Logarithm. 

No. 

Logarithm. 

1.25 

.22314 

5 . 

1.60943 

9 . 

2.19722 

1.5 

.40546 

5.25 

1.65822 

9.5 

2.25129 

1.75 

.55961 

5.5 

1.70474 

10 . 

2.30258 

2 . 

.69314 

5.75 

1.74919 

11 . 

2.39789 

2.25 

.81093 

6 . 

1.79175 

12 . 

2.48490 

2.5 

.91629 

6.25 

1.83258 

13 . 

2.56494 

2.75 

1.01160 

6.5 

1.87180 

14 . 

2.63905 

3 . 

1.09861 

6.75 

1.90954 

15 . 

2.70805 

3.25 

1.17865 

7 . 

1.94591 

16 . 

2.77258 

3.5 

1.25276 

7.25 

1.98100 

17 . 

2.83321 

3.75 

1.32175 

7.5 

2.01490 

18 . 

2.89037 

4 . 

1.38629 

7.75 

2.04769 

19 . 

2.94443 

4.25 

1.44691 

8 . 

2.07944 

20 . 

2.99573 

4.5 

4.75 

1.50507 

1.55814 

8.5 

2.14006 

21 . 

22 . 

3.04452 

3.09104 


Rule for finding the IVIean or Average Pressure in a 
Cylinder. Divide the length of the stroke (including the 
























HAND-BOOK OF MODERN STEAM FIRE-ENGINES. 


335 


clearance at one end of the cylinder) by the distance (in¬ 
cluding the clearance at one end) that the steam follows 
the piston before being cut off; the quotient will express 
the relative expansion the steam undergoes. Then find in 
the following table, in the expansion column, the number 
corresponding to this; take the multiplier opposite to it, 
and multiply the full pressure of the steam per square 
inch, as it enters the cylinder, by it. 

TABLE 


OF MULTIPLIERS BY WHICH TO FIND THE MEAN PRESSURE OF 
STEAM AT VARIOUS POINTS OF CUT-OFF. 


| Expansion. 

Multiplier. 

Expansion. 

Multiplier. 

Expansion. 

Multiplier. 

! 1.0 

1.000 

3.4 

.654 

5.8 

.479 

1.1 

.995 

3.5 

.644 

5.9 

.474 

1.2 

.985 

3.6 

.634 

6. 

.470 

1.3 

.971 

3.7 

.624 

6.1 

.466 

1.4 

.955 

3.8 

.615 

6.2 

.462 

1.5 

.937 

3.9 

.605 

6.3 

.458 

1.6 

.919 

4. 

.597 

6.4 

.454 

1.7 

.900 

4.1 

.588 

6.5 

.450 

1.8 

.882 

4.2 

.580 

6.6 

.446 

1.9 

.864 

4.3 

.572 

6.7 

.442 

2. 

.847 

4.4 

.564 

6.8 

.438 

2.1 

.830 

4.5 

.556 

6.9 

.434 

2.2 

.813 

4.6 

.549 

7. 

.430 

2.3 

.797 

4.7 

.542 

7.1 

.427 

2.4 

.781 

4.8 

.535 

7.2 

.423 

2.5 

.766 

4.9 

.528 

7.3 

.420 

2.6 

.752 

5. 

.522 

7.4 

.417 

2.7 

.738 

5.1 

.516 

7.5 

.414 

2.8 

.725 

5.2 

.510 

7.6 

.411 

2.9 

.712 

5.3 

.504 

7.7 

.408 

3. 

.700 

5.4 

.499 

7.8 

.405 

3.1 

.688 

5.5 

.494 

7.9 

.402 

3.2 

.676 

5.6 

.489 

8. 

.399 

3.3 

.665 

5.7 

.484 

































336 HAND-BOOK OF MODERN STEAM FIRE-ENGINES. 

TABLE 

SHOWING THE AVERAGE PRESSURE OF THE STEAM UPON THE 
PISTON THROUGHOUT THE STROKE, WHEN CUT OFF IN THE 
CYLINDER FROM * TO T 7 r , COMMENCING WITH 25 POUNDS AND 
ADVANCING IN 5 POUNDS UP TO 75 POUNDS PRESSURE. 


Steam cut off 
in the 
Cylinder. 

Pressure in Pounds at the Commencement of the Stroke. 

25 

30 

35 

40 

45 

50 

55 

60 

65 

70 

75 

Average Pressure in Pounds upon the Piston. 

l 

j 

17* 

21 

24* 

28 

31* 

35 

38* 

42 

45* 

49 

52* 

2 

3 

23* 

28* 

32* 

37* 

42 

46* 

51* 

56* 

61 

65* 

70* 

* 

15 

17* 

20* 

23* 

26* 

29* 

32* 

35* 

38* 

41* 

44* 

* 

21 

25* 

29* 

33* 

38 

42* 

46* 

50* 

55 

59* 

63* 

a 

4 

24 

81* 

33* 

38* 

43* 

48* 

53 

57* 

62* 

67* 

72* 

7 

13 

15* 

18* 

20* 

23* 

26 

28* 

31* 

34 

36* 

39 

f 

19 

23 

26* 

30* 

39* 

38* 

42 

46 

49* 

53* 

57* 

i 

22* 

26 

31* 

39* 

40* 

45* 

49* 

54* 

58* 

63* 

67* 

i 

23* 

29* 

34* 

39 

44 

49 

53* 

58* 

63* 

68* 

73* 

i 

11* 

14 

16* 

18* 

20* 

23* 

25* 

27* 

30* 

32* 

34* 


24* 

29* 

34* 

39* 

44* 

49* 

54 

59 

64 

69 

73* 

i 

T 

10 * 

12* 

14* 

16* 

18* 

24 

23* 

25* 

27* 

29* 

31* 

2 

7 

16 

19* 

22* 

25* 

28* 

32 

35* 

38* 

41* 

45 

48* 

3 

7 

19f 

23* 

27* 

31* 

35* 

39* 

43 

47* 

51* 

55* 

59* 

f 

22* 

26* 

31* 

35* 

40 

44* 

49* 

53* 

57* 

62* 

66* 

5 

7 

23f 

28* 

33* 

38* 

42* 

47* 

52* 

57* 

62 

66* 

71* 

6 

7 

24* 

29* 

34* 

39* 

44* 

49* 

54* 

59* 

63* 

69* 

74* 

1 

8 

9* 

11* 

13* 

15* 

17* 

19* 

21* 

23 

25 

27 

28* 

3 

8 

18* 

22* 

26 

29* 

33* 

37 

40* 

44* 

48* 

52 

55* 

5 

8 

22* 

27* 

32 

36* 

41* 

45* 

50* 

55* 

59* 

64* 

68* 

I 

8 

24* 

29* 

34* 

39* 

44* 

49* 

54* 

59* 

64* 

69* 

74* 

1 

9 

8! 

10* 

12* 

14* 

15* 

17* 

19* 

21* 

23 

24* 

264 

I 

13* 

16* 

19* 

22* 

25 

27* 

30* 

33* 

36 

38* 

41* 

t 

20 

24 

28 

32 

36 

40* 

44* 

48* 

52* 

56* 

60* 


22 

26* 

30* 

35* 

39* 

44 

48J 

52* 

56* 

61* 

66 

* 

24* 

29 

34 

38* 

43* 

48* 

53* 

58* 

63* 

68 

72* 

8 

If 

24* 

29* 

34* 

39* 

44.i 

49* 

54* 

59* 

64* 

694 

74* 

TT 

7| 

9* 

10* 

m 

13* 

15* 

16* 

184 

20 

21* 

23 

TT 

12* 

14* 

17* 

19* 

22 

24* 

27 

29* 

31* 

34* 

36* 

TT 

15* 

18* 

21* 

25 

28 

31* 

34* 

37* 

40* 

43* 

47 

TT 

18* 

21* 

25* 

29* 

32* 

36* 

40* 

43* 

47* 

51 

54* 

A 

20* 

24* 

28* 

32* 

36* 

40* 

44* 

48* 

52 * 

56* 

60* 

6 

TT 

21* 

26* 

30* 

35 

39* 

43* 

48 

52i 

56* 

61* 

65* 

1 

TT 

23 

27* 

32* 

36* 

41* 

46 

50* 

55* 

60 

64* 

69* 






































— 


HAND-BO r/"^ MODERN STEAM FIRE-ENGINES. 337 


TABLE 

SHOWING THE ATE'.4AGE PRESSURE OF STEAM UPON THE PISTON 
THROUGHOUT THE STROKE, WHEN CUT OFF IN THE CYLINDER 
FROM } TO •$, COMMENCING WITH 80 POUNDS AND ADVANCING 
IN 5 POUNDS UP TO 130 POUNDS PRESSURE. 


to 

1 n- 

Pressure in Pounds at the Commencement of the Stroke. 

Steam cui 
in the 
Cylinde 

80 

35 • 

90 

95 

100 

105 

110 

115 

120 

125 

130 

Average Pressure in Pounds upon the Piston. 

! * 

56 

591 

63 

66} 

70 

73 

77} 

80} 

84 

87} 

91 

§ 

75 

791 

84} 

89 

93} 

9S} 

103 

107} 

112} 

117 

121} 

\ 

47} 

50} 

53} 

56} 

59} 

62} 

95} 

084 

71} 

74} 

77} 

* 

071 

72 

76} 

80} 

84} 

89 

73} 

97} 

101} 

105} 

110 


77 i 

82 

87 

91} 

96} 

101} 

106} 

111 

115} 

120} 

125} 

* 

4. If 

44} 

47 

49} 

52} 

54} 

57} 

60 

624 

65} 

67} 

2 

CH 

65 

69 

72} 

76} 

80} 

84} 

88 

91} 

95} 

99} 

! * 

72.1 

77 

81} 

86 

901 

95} 

99} 

104} 

108} 

113} 

117} 

1 $ 

78} 

83 

88 

92} 

97} 

102} 

107} 

112} 

117} 

122} 

127} 

i * 

371 

391 

41? 

44} 

46} 

48} 

51} 

534 

55} 

58 

60} 

* 

70 i 

i of 

83} 

88} 

93} 

98} 

103} 

108} 

113} 

118} 

123} 

128 

* 

334 

35} 

37} 

40 

42 

44 

46} 

48} 

50* 

524 

54} 


511 

541 

57} 

61 

64} 

67} 

70} 

74 

77} 

80* 

83} 

| 

63} 

07} 

71} 

75} 

79 

83 

87 

91 

94} 

98} 

102} 

4 

7 

71} 

75} 

80 

841 

89 

93} 

98 

102} 

106} 

1114 

115} 

5 

7 

76} 

81 

85} 

90} 

95} 

100} 

105 

109} 

114} 

119} 

124 

l 

7 

79 

84 

89 

93} 

98} 

103} 

108} 

113| 

118} 

123} 

128} 

l 

30} 

Q93. 

O-Ji 

341 

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381 

40s 

42} 

44 £ 

46} 

48 

50 

f 

591 

63 

66} 

701 

74} 

78 

81} 

85} 

89 

92} 

96} 


73' 

78 

82} 

87} 

91} 

96} 

101 

105} 

110} 

114} 

119} 

! 

79} 

84} 

89} 

94} 

99 

104 

109 

114 

119 

124 

12S} 

i 

28} 

30} 

31} 

33} 

351 

37} 

39 

40} 

42.) 

44} 

69} 

46 

i 

441 

47} 

55 

57} 

55} 

58} 

61 

63} 

66} 

72} 


64} 

68} 

72} 

76} 

80} 

84} 

88} 

92* 

96} 

100} 

104* 

i 

70} 

74} 

79} 

83} 

88 

92} 

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101} 

105} 

110} 

114} 

i 

m 

82} 

871 

92} 

*97} 

102 

107 

111} 

116} 

121} 

126} 


29 W 






















































338 HAND-BOOK OF MODERN STEAM FIllE-ENGINES. 


TABLE 

SHOWING THE TEMPERATURE OF STEAM AT DIFFERENT PRESS¬ 
URES, FROM 1 LB. PER SQUARE INCH TO 240 LBS., AND THE 
QUANTITY OF STEAM PRODUCED FROM A CUBIC-INCH OF WATER, 
ACCORDING TO PRESSURE. 

It is necessary to add the pressure of the atmosphere, Id pounds, to the pressure 
on the steam-gauge, to correspond with the table. 


Total 
Pressure 
of Steam 
in lbs. per 
Square 
Inch. 

Correspond¬ 
ing Temper¬ 
ature of Steam 
to Pressure. 

Cubic Inches 
of Steam from 
a Cubic Inch 
of Water 
according to 
Pressure. 

Total 
Pressure 
of Steam 
in lbs. per 
Square 
Inch. 

Correspond¬ 
ing Temper¬ 
ature of Steam | 
to Pressure. 

Cubic Ins. 
St’m from 
aCuhic In.j 
of Water 
according 
to Press. 

1 

102.9 

20868 

35 

260.9 

767 

2 

126.1 

10874 

36 

262.6 

748 

3 

141.0 

7437 

37 

264.3 

729 

4 

152.3 

5685 

38 

265.9 

712 

5 

161.4 

4617 • 

39 

267.5 

695 

G 

1G9.2 

3897 

40 

269.1 

679 

7 

175.9 

3376 

41 

270.6 

664 

8 

182.0 

2983 

42 

272.1 

649 

9 

187.4 

2674 

43 

273.6 

635 

10 

192.4 

2426 

44 

275.0 

622 

11 

197.0 

2221 

45 

276.4 

610 

12 

201.3 

2050 

46 

277.8 

598 

13 

205.3 

1904 

47 

279.2 

. 586 

14 

209.1 

1778 

48 

280.5 

575 

i jr Press, of 91 o 
Atmsuhr.^ 

1669 

49 

281.9 

564 

1G 

216 3 

1573 

50 

283.2 

554 

17 

219.6 

1488 

51 

284.4 

544 

18 

222 7 

1411 

52 

285.7 

534 1 

19 

225.6 

1343 

53 

286.9 

525 

20 

228.5 

1281 

54 

288.1 

516 

21 

231.2 

1225 

55 

289.3 

508 

22 

233.8 

1174 

56 

290.5 

500 

23 

236.3 

1127 

57 

291.7 

492 

24 

238.7 

1084 

58 

292.9 

484 

25 

241.0 

1044 

59 

294.2 

477 

2G 

243.3 

1007 

60 

295 6 

470 

27 

245.5 

973 

61 

296.9 

463 

28 

247.6 

941 

* 62 

298.1 

456 

29 

249.6 

911 

63 

299.2 

449 

30 

251.6 

883 

64 

300.3 

443 

31 

253 6 

857 

65 

301.3 

437 

32 

255.5 

QOO 

O dO 

66 

302.4 

431 

33 

257.3 

810 

67 

803.4 

425 

34 

259.1 

788 

68 

304.4 

419 




































HAND-BOOK OF MODERN STEAM FIRE-ENGINES. 339 


T A. 33 L 33 — ( Continued .) 


Total 
Pressure 
of Steam 
in lbs. per 
Square 
Inch. 

Correspond¬ 
ing Temper¬ 
ature of Steam 
to Pressure. 

Cubic Ins.of 
Steam from 
a Cubic In. 
of Water ac¬ 
cording to 
Pressure. 

Total 
Pressure 
of Steam 
in lbs. per 
Square 
inch. 

Correspond¬ 
ing Temper¬ 
ature of Steam 
to Pressure. 

Cubic Ins.of 
Steam from 
a Cubic In. 
of Water ac¬ 
cording to 
Pressure. 

69 

305.4 

414 

92 

325.9 

319 

70 

306.4 

408 

93 

326.7 

316 

71 

307.4 

403 

94 

327.5 

313 

72 

308.4 

398 

95 

328.2 

310 

73 

309.3 

393 

96 

329.0 

307 

74 

310.3 

388 

97 

329.8 

304 

75 

311.2 

383 

98 

330.5 

301 

76 

312.2 

379 

99 

331.3 

298 

77 

313.1 ' 

374 

100 

332.0 

295 

78 

314.0 

370 

110 

339.2 

271 

79 

314.9 

366 

120 

345.8 

251 

80 

315.8 

362 

130 

352.1 

233 

81 

316.7 

358 

140 

357.9 

218 

82 

317.6 

354 

150 

363.4 

205 

83 

318.4 

350 

160 

368.7 

193 

84 

319.3 

346 

170 

373.6 

183 

85 

320.1 

342 

180 

378.4 

174 

86 

321.0 

339 

190 

382.9 

166 

87 

321.8 

335 

200 

387.3 

158 

88 

322.6 

332 

210 

391.5 

151 

89 

323.5 

328 

220 

395.5 

145 

90 

324.3 

325 

230 

399.4 

140 r 

91 

325.1 

322 

240 

403.1 

134 


\ 
























340 HAND-BOOK OF MODERN STEAM FIRE-ENGINES. 


EXPLANATION OF THE FOLLOWING TABLE. 

The first column gives the absolute pressure of the 
steam in inches of mercury, or the height to which the 
pressure would raise a column of mercury in a tube, pro¬ 
vided the opposing pressure of the atmosphere were re¬ 
moved. 

The second column gives the absolute pressure in 
pounds per square inch under the same circumstances. 


The third column, it will be observed, is headed 
“Pressure above Atmosphere.” By this is meant the ap¬ 
parent pressure of the steam as indicated by a steam- 
gauge. 


The fourth column shows the temperature in degrees 
of Fahrenheit’s scale. 


The fifth column shows the increase of volume which 
the water assumes in the act of changing into steam. 


The sixth column shows the velocity with which steam, 
at the given pressures, escapes through an orifice into the 
atmosphere, as, for example, through the safety-valve of a 
steam-boiler. 



HAND-BOOK OP MODERN STEAM FIRE-ENGINES. 341 


T A B L, E 

OF TIIE ELASTIC FORCE, TEMPERATURE, AND VOLUME OF STEAM 
FROM A TEMPERATURE OF 32° TO 457° FAN., AND FROM A 
PRESSURE OF 0.2 TO 000 INCHES OF MERCURY. 


ELASTIC 

FORCE IN 

Press, above 
Atmosphere 

Temper¬ 

ature. 

Volume. 

Velocity of 
Escape. 

Inches of 
Mercury. 

Pounds per 
Squarelnch. 

.200 

.098 


32° 

187407 


.221 

.108 


35 

170267 


.263 

.129 


40 

144529 


.316 

.155 


45 

121483 


.375 

.184 


50 

103350 


.443 

.217 


55 

88388 


.524 

.257 


60 

75421 


.616 

.302 


65 

64762 


.721 

.353 


70 

55862 


.851 

.417 


75 

47771 


1.000 

.49 


80 

41031 


1.17 

.573 


85 

35393 


1.36 

.666 


90 

30425 


1.58 

.774 


95 

26686 


1.86 

.911 


100 

22873 


2.04 

1.000 


103 

20958 


2.18 

1.068 


105 

19693 


2.53 

1.24 


110 

16667 


2.92 

1 431 


115 

14942 


3.33 

1.632 


120 

13215 


3.79 

1.857 


125 

11723 


4.34 

2.129 


130 

10328 


5.00 

2.45 


135 

9036 


5.74 

2.813 


140 

7938 


6.53 

3.100 


145 

7040 


7.42 

3.636 


150 

6243 


8.40 

4.116 


155 

5559 


9.46 

4.635 


160 

4976 


10.68 

5.23 


165 

4443 


12.13 

5.94 


170 

3943 


13.62 

6.67 


175 

3538 


15.15 

7.42 


180 

3208 


17.00 

8.33 


185 

2879 


19.00 ' 

9.31 


190 

2595 


21.22 

10.40 


195 

2342 


23.64 

11.58 


200 

2118 


26.13 

12.80 


205 

1932 


28.84 

14.13 


210 

1763 



29 * 






























342 HAND-BOOK OF MODERN STEAM FIRE-ENGINES 


TABLE- ( Continued .) 


ELASTIC 

FORCE IN 

Press, above 
Atmosphere 

Temper¬ 

ature. 

Volume. 

Velocity of 
Escape. 

Inches of 
Mercury. 

Pounds per 
Squarelnch. 

29.41 

14.41 


211. 0 

1730 


30.00 

14.70 

0 . 

212. 

1700 


30.00 

15.00 


212.8 

1009 


31.02 

15.50 

0.8 

214.5 

1018 


32.04 

10.00 

1.3 

210.3 

1573 


33.00 

10.50 


218. 

1530 


34.03 

17.00 

2.3 

219.0 

1488 


35.70 

17.50 


221.2 

1440 


30.72 

18.00 

3.3 

222.7 

1411 


37.74 

18.50 


224.2 

1377 

874 

38.70 

19.00 

4.3 

225.0 

1343 


39.78 

19.50 


227.1 

1312 


40.80 

20.00 

5 3 

228.5 

1281 


41.82 

20.50 


229.9 

1253 


42.84 

21.00 

6.3 

231.2 

1225 


43.80 

21.50 


232.5 

1199 


44.88 

22.00 

7.3 

233.8 

1174 

1135 

45.90 

22.50 


235.1 

1150 


40.92 

23.00 

8.3 

230.3 

1127 


47 94 

23.50 


237.5 

1105 


48.90 

24.00 

9.3 

238.7 

1084 


49.98 

24.50 


239.9 

1004 


51.00 

25.00 

10.3 

241. 

1044 


53.04 

20.00 

11.3 

243.3 

1007 

1295 

55.08 

27. 

12.3 

245.5 

973 


57.12 

28. 

13.3 

247.0 

941 


59.10 

29. 

14.3 

249.0 

911 

1407 

01.20 

30. 

15.3 

251.0 

883 


G3.24 

31. 

16.3 

253.0 

857 


65.28 

32. 

17.3 

255.5 

833 


07.32 

33. 

18.3 

257.3 

810 

1491 

03 90 

34. 

19.3 

259.1 

788 


71.40 

35. 

20.3 

200.9 

707 


73.44 

30. 

21.3 

202.0 

748 


75.48 

37. 

22.3 

204.3 

729 

1550 

77.52 

38. 

23.3 

205.9 

712 


79.50 

39. 

24.3 

267.5 

095 


81.00 

40. 

25.3 

209.1 

079 

1GC0 

83.04 

41. 

26.3 

270.6 

004 


85.08 

42. 

27.3 

272.1 

049 


87.72 

43. 

28.3 

273.6 

035 




















HAND-BOOK OF MODERN STEAM FIRE-ENGINES. 343 


TABLE — ( Continued .) 


ELASTIC 

FORCE IN 

Press, above 
Atmosphere 

Temper¬ 

ature. 

Volume. 

Velocity of 
Escape. 

Inches of 
Mercury. 

Pounds per 
Squarelnch. 

89.76 

44. 

29.3 

275. ° 

622 

1652 

91.80 

45. 

30 3 

276.4 

610 


93.84 

46. 

31.3 

277.8 

598 


95.88 

47. 

32.3 

279.2 

586 


97.92 

48. 

333 

280.5 

575 

1690 

99.96 

49. 

343 

281.9 

564 


102.00 

50. 

35 3 

283.2 

554 


104.04 

51. 

36 3 

284.4 

544 

1720 

106.08 

52. 

37 3 

285.7 

534 


108.12 

53. 

33.3 

286.9 

525 

m 

110.16 

54. 

39 3 

288.1 

516 


112.20 

55. 

403 

289.3 

508 

175C 

114.24 

56. 

41.3 

290.5 

500 


116.28 

57. 

42.3 

291.7 

492 


118.32 

58. 

433 

292.9 

484 

1774 

120.36 

59. 

443 

294.2 

477 


122.40 

60. 

45.3 

295.6 

470 


124.44 

61. 

46.3 

296.9 

463 


126.48 

62. 

47 3 

298.1 

450 


128.52 

63. 

48.3 

299.2 

449 


130.66 

64. 

49.3 

300.3 

443 


132.60 

65. 

503 

301.3 

437 


134.64 

66. 

51 3 

302.4 

431 

181G 

136.68 

67. 

523 

303.4 

425 


138.72 

68. 

533 

304.4 

419 


140.76 

69. 

54.3 

305.4 

414 


142.80 

70. 

55.3 

306.4 

408 


144.84 

71. 

56.3 

307.4 

403 


146.88 

72. 

573 

308.4 

398 


148.92 

73. 

58.3 

309.3 

393 

1850 

150.96 

74. 

59.3 

310.3 

388 


153.02 

75. 

60 3 

311.2 

383 


155.06 

76. 

61.3 

312.2 

379 


157.10 

77. 

623 

313.1 

374 


159.14 

78. 

633 

314, 

370 


161.18 

79. 

64.3 

314.9 

366 


163.22 

80. 

65.3 

315.8 

362 


165.26 

81. 

663 

316.7 

358 


167.30 

82. 

67.3 

317.7 

354 


169.34 

83. 

68.3 

318.4 

350 


171.38 

84. 

693 

319.3 

346 


























* 

344 HAND-BOOK OF MODERN STEAM FIRE-ENGINES. 


TABLE — ( Continued .) 


ELASTIC 

FORCE IN 

Press, above 
Atmosphere 

Temper¬ 

ature. 

Volume. 

Velocity of 
Escape. 

Inches of 
Mercury. 

Pounds per 
Squareluck. 

173.42 

85. 

703 

320.1° 

342 


183.62 

90. 

753 

324.3 

325 

1904 

1 93.82 

95. 

80 3 

328.2 

310 


203.99 

100. 

85.3 

332. 

295 


214.19 

105. 

903 

335.8 

282 

1950 

224.39 

110. 

853 

339.2 

271 


234.59 

115. 

100.3 

342.7 

259 


244.79 

120. 

105 3 

345.8 

251 

1980 

254.99 

125. 

1 10 3 

349.1 

240 


265.19 

130. 

1 15 3 

352.1 

233 


275.39 

135. 

1 20.3 

355. 

224 

2006 

285.59 

140. 

1 253 

357.9 

218 


295.79 

145. 

1303 

360.6 

210 


306. 

150. 

135.3 

363.4 

205 

2029 

316.19 

155. 

140 3 

366. 

198 


326.29 

160. 

145.3 

368.7 

193 


336.59 

165. 

1503 

371.1 

]87 


346.79 

170. 

1553 

373.6 

183 


357. 

175. 

160.3 

376. 

178 


367.2 

180. 

1653 

378.4 

174 


377.1 

185. 

1703 

380.6 

169 

2074 

387.6 

190. 

175.3 

382.9 

166 


397.8 

195. 

180 3 

384.1 

161 


408. 

200. 

185.3 

387 3 

158 


448.8 

220. 

205 3 

392. 


2109 

524.28 

257. 

242.3 

406. 


2136 

599.76 

294. 

279.3 

418. 


2159 

848.68 

367. 

352 3 

429. 


2196 

889.64 

441. 

426 3 

457. 


2226 
























HAND-BOOK OF MODERN STEAM FIRE-ENGINES. 345 


TAB L E 

SHOWING THE TEMPERATURE AND WEIGHT OF STEAM AT DIF¬ 
FERENT PRESSURES FROM 1 POUND PER SQUARE INCH TO 300 
POUNDS, AND THE QUANTITY OF STEAM PRODUCED FROM 1 
CUBIC INCH OF WATER, ACCORDING TO PRESSURE. 


Total pressure 
per square inch 
measured from a 
vacuum. 

--- 1 

Pressure above 
atmosphere. 

Sensible temper¬ 
ature in Fahren¬ 
heit degrees. 

Total heat in de¬ 

grees from zero 
of Fahrenheit. 

Weight of one 

cubic foot of 

steam. 

Relative volume 

of steam com¬ 

pared with wa¬ 
ter from which 
it was raised. 

1 


102.1 

1144.5 

.0030 

20582 

2 


126.3 

1151.7 

.0058 

10721 

3 


141.6 

1156.6 

.0085 

7322 

4 


153.1 

1160.1 

.0112 

5583 

5 


162.3 

1162.9 

.0138 

4527 

G 


170.2 

1165.3 

.0163 

3813 

7 


176.9 

1167.3 

.0189 

3298 

8 


182.9 

1169.2 

.0214 

2909 

9 


188.3 

1170.8 

.0239 

2604 

10 


193.3 

1172.3 

.0264 

2358 

11 


197.8 

1173.7 

.0289 

2157 

12 


202.0 

1175.0 

.0314 

1986 

13 


205.9 

1176.2 

.0338 

1842 

14 


209.6 

1177.3 

.0362 

1720 

14.7 

0 

212.0 

1178.1 

.0380 

1642 

15 

.3 

213.1 

3178.4 

.0387 

1610 

16 

1.3 

216.3 

1179.4 

.0411 

1515 

17 

2.3 

219.6 

1180.3 

.0435 

1431 

18 

3.3 

222.4 

1181.2 

.0459 

1357 

19 

4.3 

225.3 

1182.1 

.0483 

1290 

20 

5.3 

228.0 

1182.9 

.0507 

1229 

21 

6.3 

230.6 

1183.7 

.0531 

1174 

22 

7.3 

233.1 

1184.5 

.0555 

1123 

23 

8.3 

235.5 

1185.2 

.0580 

1075 

24 

9.3 

237.8 

1185.9 

.0601 

1036 

25 

10.3 

240.1 

1186.6 

.0625 

996 

2G 

11.3 

242.3 

1187.3 

.0650 

958 

27 

12.3 

244.4 

1187.8 

.0673 

926 

28 

13.3 

246.4 

1188.4 

.0696 

895 

29 

14.3 

248.4 

1189.1 

.0719 

866 

30 

15.3 

250.4 

1189.8 

.0743 

838 

31 

16.3 

252.2 

1190.4 

.0766 

813 


































31G HAND-BOOK OF MODERN STEAM FIRE-ENGINES. 


TABLE— ( Continued ). 


Total pressure 
per square inch 
measured from a 
vacuum. 

Pressure above 
atmosphere. 

Sensible temper¬ 

ature in Fahren¬ 
heit degrees. 

Total heat in de¬ 

grees from zero 
of Fahrenheit. 

Weight of one 

cubic foot of 

steam. 

32 

17.3 

254.1 

1190.9 

.0789 

33 

18.3 

255.9 

1191.5 

.0812 

34 

19.3 

257.6 

1192.0 

.0835 

35 

20.3 

259.3 

1192.5 

.0858 

36 

21.3 

260.9 

1193.0 

.0881 

37 

22.3 

262.6 

1193.5 

.0905 

38 

23.3 

264.2 

1194.0 

.0929 

39 

24.3 

235.8 

1194.5 

.0952 

40 

25.3 

267,3 

1194.9 

.0974 

41 

26.3 

268.7 

1195.4 

.0996 

42 

27.3 

270.2 

1195.8 

.1020 

43 

28.3 

271.6 

1196.2 

.1042 

44 

29.3 

273.0 

1196.6 

.1065 

45 

30.3 

274.4 

1197.1 

.1089 

46 

31.3 

275.8 

1197.5 

.1111 

47 

32.3 

277.1 

1197.9 

.1133 

48 

33.3 

278.4 

1198.3 

.1156 

49 

34.3 

279.7 

1198.7 

.1179 

50 

35.3 

281.0 

1199.1 

.1202 

51 

36.3 

282.3 

1199.5 

.1224 

52 

37.3 

283,5 

1199.9 

.1246 

53 

38.3 

284.7 

1200.3 

.1269 

54 

39.3 

285.9 

1200.6 

.1291 

55 

40.3 

287.1 

1201.0 

.1314 

56 

41.3 

288.2 

1201.3 

.1336 

57 

42.3 

289.3 

1201.7 

.1364 

58 

43.3 

290.4 

1202.0 

.1380 

59 

44.3 

291.6 

1202.4 

.1403 

60 

45.3 

292.7 

1202.7 

.1425 

61 

46.3 

293.8 

1203.1 

.1447 

62 

47.3 

294.8 

1203.4 

.1469 

63 

48.3 

295.9 

1203.7 

.1493 

64 

49.3 

296.9 

1204.0 

.1516 

65 

50.3 

298.0 

1204.3 

.1538 

66 

51.3 

299.0 

1204.6 

.1560 

67 

52.3 

300.0 

1204.9 

.1583 

68 

53.3 

300.9 

1205.2 

.1605 

69 

54.3 

301.9 

1205.5 

.1627 


Relative volume 

<J,M o1 ’ steam com- 

oo oo o co o h m to oo oo if a ci o n co co o o m to co 01 cj n co o p to ci n oo o w ^ os O) pared with wa- 

WCOWOOlHNh-ON^HWO^WHOOOOOCOHWOlWHOlOOlHOONOlQNCO f or f rom w ],j ch 

it was raised. 














HAND-BOOK OF MODERN STEAM FIRE-ENGINES. 347 


T ABLE— (Coni inued ). 


Total pressure 
per square inch 
measured from a 
vacuum. 

Pressure above 
atmosphere. 

Sensible temper¬ 

ature in Fahren¬ 
heit degrees. 

Total heat in de¬ 

grees from zero 
of Fahrenheit. 

Weight of one 

cubic foot of 

steam. 

Relative volume 

of steam com¬ 

pared with wa¬ 
ter from which 
it was raised. 

70 

55.3 

302.9 

1205.8 

.1648 

378 

71 

56.3 

303.9 

1206.1 

.1670 

373 

72 

57.3 

304.8 

1206.3 

.1692 

368 

73 

58.3 

305.7 

1206.6 

.1714 

363 

74 

59.3 

306.6 

1206.9 

.1736 

359 

75 

60.3 

307.5 

1207.2 

.1759 

353 

76 

61.3 

308.4 

1207.4 

.1782 

349 

77 

62.3 

309.3 

1207.7 

.1804 

345 

78 

63.3 

310.2 

1208.0 

.1826 

341 

79 

64.3 

311.1 

1208.3 

.1848 

337 

80 

65.3 

312.0 

1208.5 

.1869 

333 

81 

66.3 

312.8 

1208.8 

.1891 

329 

82 

67.3 

313.6 

1209.1 

.1913 

325 

83 

68.3 

314.5 

1209.4 

.1935 

321 

84 

69.3 

315.3 

1209.6 

.1957 

318 

85 

70.3 

316.1 

1209.9 

.1980 

314 

86 

71.3 

316.9 

1210.1 

.2002 

311 

87 

72.3 

317.8 

1210.4 

.2024 

308 

88 

73.3 

318.6 

1210.6 

.2044 

305 

89 

74.3 

319.4 

1210.9 

.2067 

301 

90 

75.3 

320.2 

1211.1 

.2089 

298 

91 

76.3 

321.0 

1211.3 

.2111 

295 

92 

77.3 

321.7 

1211.5 

.2133 

292 

93 

78.3 

322.5 

1211.8 

.2155 

289 

94 

79.3 

323.3 

1212.0 

.2176 

286 

95 

80.3 

324.1 

1212.3 

.2198 

283 

93 

81.3 

324.8 

1212.5 

.2219 

281 

97 

82.3 

325.6 

1212.8 

.2241 

278 

98 

83.3 

326.3 

1213.0 

.2263 

275 

99 

84.3 

327.1 

1213.2 

.2285 

272 

100 

85.3 

327.9 

1213.4 

.2307 

270 

101 

86.3 

328.5 

1213.6 

.2329 

267 

102 

87.3 

329.1 

1213.8 

.2351 

265 

103 

88.3 

329.9 

1214.0 

.2373 

262 

104 

89.3 

330.6 

1214.2 

.2393 

260 

105 

90.3 

331.3 

1214.4 

.2414 

257 

103 

91.3 

331.9 

1214.6 

.2435 

255 

107 

92.3 

332.6 

1214.8 

.2456 

253 

























348 HAND-BOOK OF MODERN STEAM FIRE-ENGINES. 


TABLE—( Continued). 


Total pressure 
per square inch 
measured from a 
vacuum. 

Pressure above 
atmosphere. 

Sensible temper¬ 

ature in Fahren¬ 
heit degrees. 

/ . 

Total heat in de¬ 

grees from zero 
of Fahrenheit. 

Weight of one 

cubic foot of 

steam. 

Relative volume 

of steam com¬ 

pared with wa¬ 
ter from which 
it was raised. 

108 

93.3 

333.3 

1215.0 

.2477 

251 

109 

94.3 

334.0 

1215.3 

.2499 

249 

110 

95.3 

334.6 

1215.5 

.2521 

247 

111 

96.3 

335.3 

1215.7 

.2543 

245 

112 

97.3 

336.0 

1215.9 

.2564 

243 

113 

98.3 

336.7 

1216.1 

.2586 

241 

114 

99.3 

337.4 

1216.3 

.2607 

239 

115 

100.3 

338.0 

1216.5 

.2628 

237 

116 

101.3 

338.6 

1216.7 

.2649 

235 

117 

102.3 

339.3 

1216.9 

.2674 

233 

118 

103.3 

339.9 

1217.1 

.2696 

231 

119 

104.3 

340.5 

1217.3 

.2738 

229 

120 

105.3 

341.1 

1217.4 

.2759 

227 

121 

106.3 

341.8 

1217.6 

.2780 

225 

122 

107.3 

342.4 

1217.8 

.2801 

224 

123 

108.3 

343.0 

1218.0 

.2822 

222 

124 

109.3 

343.6 

1218.2 

.2845 

221 

125 

110.3 

344.2 

1218.4 

.2867 

219 

126 

111.3 

344.8 

1218.6 

.2889 

217 

127 

112.3 

345.4 

1218.8 

.2911 

215 

128 

113.3 

346.0 

1218.9 

.2933 

214 

129 

114.3 

346.6 

1219.1 

.2955 

212 

130 

115.3 

347.2 

1219.3 

.2977 

211 

131 

116.3 

347.8 

1219.5 

.2999 

209 

132 

117.3 

348.3 

1219.6 

.3020 

208 

133 

118.3 

348.9 

1219.8 

.3040 

206 

134 

119.3 

349.5 

1220.0 

.3060 

205 

135 

120.3 

350.1 

1220.2 

.3080 

203 

136 

121.3 

350.6 

1220.3 

.3101 

202 

137 

122.3 

351.2 

1220.5 

.3121 

200 

138 

123.3 

351.8 

1220.7 

.3142 

199 

139 

124.3 

352.4 

1220.9 

.3162 

198 

140 

125.3 

352.9 

1221.0 

.3184 

197 

141 

126.3 

353.5 

1221.2 

.3206 

395 

142 

127.3 

354.0 

1221.4 

.3228 

194 

143 

128.3 

354.5 

1221.6 

.3258 

193 

144 

129.3 

355.0 

1221.7 

.3273 

192 

145 

130.3 

355.6 

1221.9 

.3294 

190 














HAND-BOOK OF MODERN STEAM FIRE-ENGINES. 349 


TABLE—( Concluded ). 


Total pressure 
per square inch 
measured from a 
vacuum. 

Pressure above 
atmosphere. 

Sensible temper¬ 

ature in Fahren¬ 
heit degrees. 

Total heat in de¬ 

grees from zero 
of Fahrenheit. 

Weight of one 

cubic foct of 

steam. 

Relative volume 

of steam com¬ 

pared with wa¬ 
ter from which 
it was raised. 

146 

131.3 

356.1 

1222.0 

.3315 

189 

147 

132.3 

356.7 

1222.2 

.3336 

188 

148 

133.3 

357.2 

1222.3 

.3357 

187 

149 

134.3 

357.8 

1222.5 

.3377 

186 

150 

135.3 

358.3 

1222.7 

.3397 

184 

155 

140.3 

361.0 

1223.5 

.3500 

179 

160 

145.3 

363.4 

1224.2 

.3607 

174 

165 

150.3 

366.0 

1224.9 

.3714 

169 

170 

155.3 

368.2 

1225.7 

.3821 

164 

175 

160.3 

370.8 

1226.4 

.3928 

159 

180 

165.3 

372.9 

1227.1 

.4035 

155 

185 

170.3 

375.3 

1227.8 

.4142 

151 

190 

175.3 

377.5 

1228.5 

.4250 

148 

195 

180.3 

379.7 

1229.2 

.4357 

144 

200 

185.3 

381.7 

1229.8 

.4464 

141 

210 

195.3 

386.0 

1231.1 

.4668 

135 

220 

205.3 

389.9 

1232.8 

.4872 

129 

230 

215.3 

393.8 

1233.5 

.5072 

123 

240 

225.3 

397.5 

1234.6 

.5270 

119 

250 

235.3 

401.1 

1235.7 

.5471 

114 

260 

245.3 

404.5 

1236.8 

.5670 

110 

270 

255.3 

407.9 

1237.8 

.5871 

106 

280 

265.3 

411.2 

1238.8 

.6070 

102 

290 

275.3 

414.4 

1239.8 

.6268 

99 

300 

285.3 

417.5 

1240.7 

.6469 

96 


30 


























350 HAND-BOOK OF MODERN STEAM FIRE-ENGINES. 

CENTRAL AND MECHANICAL FORCES AND DEFINI¬ 
TIONS. 

Acceleration. —Acceleration is the increase of velocity 
in a moving body caused by the continued action of the 
motive force. When bodies in motion passthrough equal 
spaces in equal time, or, in other words, when the velocity 
of the body is the same during the period that the body is 
in motion, it is termed uniform motion, of which we have 
a familiar instance in the motion of the hands of a clock 
over the face of it; but a more correct illustration is the 
revolution of the earth on its axis. In the case of a body 
moving through unequal spaces in equal times, or with a 
varying velocity, if the velocity increase with the duration 
of the motion, it is termed accelerated motion; but if it 
decrease with the duration of the motion, it is termed 
retarded motion. 

Affinity .— Affinity is a term used in chemistry to denote 
that kind of attraction by which the particles of different 
bodies unite, and form a compound possessing properties 
distinct from those of any of the substances which compose 
it. Thus, when an acid and alkali combine, a new sub¬ 
stance is formed called a salt, perfectly different in its 
chemical properties from either an acid or an alkali; and, 
in consequence of the law of affinity, these bodies have a 
tendency to unite. 

Angle. — If two lines drawn on a plain surface are so 
situated that they meet in a point, or would do so, if long 
enough, they form an opening, which is called an angle. 
Oiie straight line meeting another which is perpendicular 
to it makes the angle on both sides equal; then these angles 
are each called a right angle, and in this case the one line 
is said to be perpendicular to the other, or, in the language 
of mechanics, the one line is said to be square with the 


HAND-BOOK OF MODERN STEAM FIRE-ENGINES. 851 


other; and if the one line be horizontal, the perpendicular 
is said to be plumb to it. The arc which measures a right 
angle is the quarter of the whole circumference, or is a 
quadrant, and contains 90 degrees ; any angle measured 
by an arc less than this is acute (sharp), and if by an arc 
greater than a quadrant, obtuse (blunt). 

Axle. —An axle is a shaft supporting a wheel; the 
wheel may turn on the axle, or be fastened to it, and the 
axle turn on bearings. Axles are viewed as having cer¬ 
tain relations to girders in principle. Girders generally 
have their two ends resting on two points of support, and 
the load is either located at fixed distances from the props, 
or dispersed over the' whole surface of the axle; the 
wheels may be considered the props and the journals the 
loaded parts. It is found that the inclined surface of the 
wheel-tire given by coning ranges from 1 to 12 to 1 to 
20; and, as a matter of course, the direct tendency of the 
wheel under a load is to descend that incline, so that every 
vertical blow which the wheels may receive is compounded 
of two forces, viz., the one to crush the wheels in the 
direction of their vertical plane, and the other to move 
the lower parts of the wheels together. It will be seen that 
these two forces have a direct tendency to bend the axle 
somewhere between the wheels. 

Capillary Attraction. — Capillary attraction is the 
property inherent in narrow tubes and porous substances, 
such as sponge, lamp-wicking, thread, etc., of raising oil, 
water, or other fluids above their natural level. Hence 
this principle is applied for obtaining a continuous supply 
of lubricating fluids between rubbing and revolving sur¬ 
faces in motion, by means of a siphon constructed of wick- 
ings, worsted, or some other substance, one end of which 
is immersed in oil, and the other inserted in the tube 
through which the fluid is to be conducted. 









352 HAND-BOOK OF MODERN STEAM FIRE-ENGINES. 

Centre of Gravity. — The forces with which all bodies 
tend to fall to the earth may be considered parallel; hence 
every body may ba considered as acted on by a system of 
parallel forces, whose resultant may be found, and these 
forces, in all positions of the body, act on the same points 
in the same vertical direction. There is, therefore, in every 
body a point through which the resultant always passes, 
in whatever position it is placed. This point is called the 
centre of gravity of the body. The centre of gravity of a 
uniform cylinder or prism is in its axis, and at the middle 
of its length ; of a right cone or a pyramid it is also in the 
axis, but at one-fourth of the height from the base. 

Dynamics. — Dynamics is that branch of mechanics 
which treats of forces in motion producing power and 
work. It comprehends the action of all kinds of machin¬ 
ery, manual and animal labor, in the transformation of 
physical work. 

Energy. — This term is used to denote work, but the 
sense of it conveys an idea of a different virtue, namely, 
that of activity or vigor, which is power. We say that a 
man has a great deal of energy when lie can accomplish 
much work in a short time, which is virtue of power; but 
if he accomplishes the same quantity of work in a much 
longer time, we do not give him credit for much energy. 
The term energy, if employed at all, ought to be applied 
to power alone; but as we have the expressive term power 
for that function, it is better to dispense with the term 
energy in dynamics. 

Force. — Force is the cause of motion or change of 
motion in material bodies. Every change of motion, viz., 
every change in the velocity of a body, must be regarded 
as the effect of a force. On the other hand, rest, or the 
invariability of the state of motion of a body, must not be 
attributed to the absence of forces, for opposite forces 


HAND-BOOK CF MODERN STEAM FIRE-ENGINES. 


353 


destroy each other and produce no effect. The gravity 
with which a body falls to the ground still acts, though 
the body rests; but this action is counteracted by the so¬ 
lidity of the material upon which it reposes. Forces that 
are balanced so as to produce rest are called statical forces 
or pressures, to distinguish them from moving, deflecting, 
accelerating, or retarding forces; e., such as are pro¬ 

ducing motion, or a change in the direction or velocity of 
motion. This distinction is wholly artificial, for the same 
force may act in any of these modes; it may sometimes 
be a statical and sometimes an accelerating force. 

Force is any action which can be expressed simply by 
weight, and is distinguished by a great variety of terms, 
such as attraction, repulsion, gravity, pressure, tension, 
compression, cohesion, adhesion, resistance, inertia, strain, 
stress, strength, thrust, burden, load, squeeze, pull, push, 
pinch, punch, etc., all of which may be measured or ex¬ 
pressed by weight without regard to motion, time, power, 
or work. 

Focus. — Focus in geometry is that point in the trans¬ 
verse axis of a conic section at which the double ordinate 
is equal to a perimeter, or to a third proportional to the 
transverse and conjugate axis. 

Friction. — Friction is the resistance occasioned to the 
motion of a body when pressed upon the surface of another 
body which does not partake of its motion. Under these 
circumstances, the surfaces in contact have a certain ten¬ 
dency to adhere. Not being perfectly smooth, the imper¬ 
ceptible asperities which may be supposed to exist on all 
surfaces, however highly polished, become to some extent 
interlocked, and, in consequence, a certain amount of 
force is requisite to overcome the mutual resistance to 
motion of the two surfaces and to maintain the sliding 
motion even when it has been produced. By increasing 
30* X 


















354 HAND-BOOK OF MODERN STEAM FIRE-ENGINES. 

• the pressure, the resistance to motion is increased also ; and 
on the other hand, by rendering the surfaces smoother by 
lubrication, its amount is greatly diminished, but can 
never be entirely annulled. 

Friction cannot be strictly called a force, unless that 
term be taken in a negative sense. The tendency of force, 
in the rigid meaning of the word, is to produce motion ; 
whereas the tendency of friction is to destroy motion. 

Friction Rollers. —The obstruction which a cylinder 
meets in rolling along a smooth plane is quite distinct in 
its character, and far inferior in its amount to that which 
is produced by the friction of the same cylinder drawn 
lengthwise along a plane. For example, in the case of 
wood rolling on wood, the resistance is to the pressure, if 
the cylinder be small, as 16 or 18 to 1000, and if the 
cylinder be large, this may be reduced to 6 to 1000. The 
friction from sliding, in the same cases, would be to the 
pressure as 2 to 10 or 3 to 10, according to the nature of 
the wood. Hence, by causing one body to roll on another, 
the resistance is diminished from 12 to 20 times. It is 
therefore a principle, in the composition of machines, that 
attrition should be avoided as much as possible, and 
rolling motions substituted whenever circumstances admit. 

Gravity and Gravitation. — These terms are often used 
synonymously to denote the mutual tendency which all 
bodies in nature have to approach each other. 

Gravity, Specific. — The specific gravity of a body is 
the ratio of its weight to an equal volume of some other 
body assumed as a conventional standard. The standard 
usually adopted for solids and liquids is rain or distilled 
water at a common temperature. In bodies of equal mag¬ 
nitudes, the specific gravities are directly as the weights 
or as their densities. In bodies of the same specific gravity 
the weights will be as the magnitudes. In bodies of equal 




HAND-BOOK OF MODERN STEAM FIRE-ENGINES. 


355 


weights, the specific gravities are inversely as the magni¬ 
tudes. The weights of different bodies are to each other 
in the compound ratio of their magnitudes and specific 
gravities. Hence, it is obvious that, speaking of the mag¬ 
nitude, weight, and specific gravity of a body, if any two 
of them are given, the third may be found. 

A body immersed in a fluid will sink if its specific 
gravity be greater than that of the fluid; if it be less, the 
body will rise to the top, and be only partly immerged ; 
and if the specific gravity of the body and fluid be equal, 
it will remain at rest in any part of the fluid in which it 
may be placed. When a body is heavier than a fluid, it 
loses as much of its weight when immersed as is equal 
to a quantity of the fluid of the same bulk or magnitude. 
If the specific gravity of the fluid be greater than that 
of the body, then the quantity of fluid displaced by the 
part immerged is equal to the weight of the whole body. 
And hence, as the specific gravity of the fluid is to that 
of the body, so is the whole magnitude of the body to the 
part immerged. The specific gravities of equal solids are 
as their parts immerged in the same fluid. 

Gyration, the Centre of. — The centre of gyration is 
that point in which, if all the matter contained in a revolv¬ 
ing system were collected, the same angular velocity will 
be generated in the same time by a given force acting at 
any place as would be generated by the same force acting 
similarly in the body or system itself. The distance of 
the centre of gyration from the point of suspension or the 
axis of motion, is a mean proportional between the dis¬ 
tances of the centres of oscillation and gravity from the 
same point or axle. 

Horse-power, or Power of a Horse. — The power of a 
horse when applied to draw loads, as well as when made 
the standard of comparison for determining the value of 







35G HAND-BOOK OF MODERN STEAM FIRE-ENGINES. 

other powers, has been variously stated. The relative 
strength of men and horses depends, of course, upon the 
manner in which their strength is applied. Thus, the 
worst way of applying the strength of a horse is to make 
him carry a weight up a steep hill; while the organization 
of the man fits him very well for that kind of labor. 
Three men climbing up a steep hill, each one having 100 
pounds on his shoulder, will proceed faster than most 
horses with 300 pounds. 

Hydrodynamics. — Hydrodynamics is that branch of 
general mechanics which treats of the equilibrium and 
motion of fluids. The terms hydrostatics and hydrodyn¬ 
amics have a signification corresponding to the statics and 
dynamics in the mechanics of solid bodies, viz., hydro¬ 
statics is that division of the science which treats of the 
equilibrium of fluids, and hydrodynamics that which 
relates to their forces and motion. It is, however, very 
usual to include the whole doctrine of the mechanics of 
fluids under the general term of hydrodynamics, and to 
denote the divisions relative to their equilibrium and 
motion by the terms hydrostatics and hydraulics. 

Hyperbola. — A plane figure formed by cutting a sec¬ 
tion from a cone by a plane parallel to its axis, or to any 
plane within the cone, which passes through the cone’s 
vertex. The curve of the hyperbola is such that the 
difference between the distances of any point in it from 
two given points is always equal to a given right line. If 
the vertices of two cones meet each other so that their axes 
form one continuous straight line, and the plane of the 
hyperbola cut from one of the cones be continued, it will 
cut the other cone, and form what is called the opposite 
hyperbola, equal and similar to the former; and the dis¬ 
tance between the vertices of the two hyperbolse is called 
the major axis, or transverse diameter. If the distance 



HAND-BOOK OF MODERN STEAM FIRE-ENGINES. 357 


between a certain point within the hyperbola, called tho 
focus, and any point in the curve be subtracted from the 
distance of said point in the curve from the focus of the 
opposite hyperbola, the remainder will always be equal 
to a given quantity, that is, to the major axis; and the 
distance of either focus from the centre of the major axis 
is called the eccentricity. The line passing through the 
centre, perpendicular to the major axis, and having the 
distance of its extremities from those of the axis equal to 
the eccentricity, is called the minor axis, or conjugate di¬ 
ameter. An ordinate to the major axis, a double ordinate, 
and an absciss mean the same as the corresponding lines 
in the parabola. 

Impact is the single instantaneous blow or stroke com¬ 
municated from one body in motion to another either in 
motion or at rest. 

Impenetrability. — In physics, one of the essential prop¬ 
erties of matter or body. It is a property inferred from 
invariable experience, and resting on this incontrovertible 
fact, that no two bodies can occupy the same portion of 
space in the same instant of time. Impenetrability, as 
respects solid bodies, requires no proof: it is obvious to 
the touch. With regard to liquids, the property may be 
proved by very simple experiments. Let a vessel be filled 
to the brim with water, and a solid, incapable of solution in 
water, be plunged into it; a portion of the water will over¬ 
flow exactly equal in bulk to the dimensions of the body 
immersed. If a cork be rammed hard into the neck of a 
vial full of water, the vial will burst, while its neck re¬ 
mains entire. The disposition of air to resist penetration 
may be illustrated in the following way: Let a tall glass 
vessel be nearly filled with water, on the surface of which 
a lighted taper is set to float; if over this glass a smaller 
cylindrical vessel, likewise of glass, be inverted and pressed 





358 HAND-BOOK OF MODERN STEAM FIRE-ENGINES. 

downwards, the contained air maintaining its place, the 
internal body of the water will descend while the rest will 
rise up at the sides, and the taper will continue to burn 
for some seconds encompassed by the whole mass of 
liquid. 

Impetus. — Impetus is the product of the mass and 
velocity of a moving body, considered as instantaneous, 
in distinction from momentum, with reference to time, and 
force, with reference to capacity of continuing its motion. 
Impetus in gunnery is the altitude through which a heavy 
body must fall to acquire a velocity equal to that with 
which the ball is discharged from the piece. 

Incidence. — The term incidence in mechanics is used 
to denote the direction in which a body or ray of light 
strikes another body, and is otherwise called inclination. 
In moving bodies their incidence is said to be perpendic¬ 
ular or oblique according as their lines of motion make a 
straight line or an angle at the point of contact. 

Inclination. — Inclination denotes the mutual approach 
or tendency of two bodies, lines, or planes towards each 
other, so that the lines of their direction make at the point 
of contact an angle of greater or less magnitude. 

Inclined Plane. — An inclined plane is one of the 
mechanical powers; a plane which forms an angle with 
the horizon. The force which accelerates the motion of 
a heavy body on an inclined plane, is to the force of grav¬ 
ity as the sine of the inclination of the plane to the radius, 
or as the height of the plane is to its length. 

Inertia.— Inertia is that property of matter by which 
it tends when at rest to remain so, and when in motion to 
continue in motion. 

Levers. — Levers are classified into three different kinds 
or orders. When the fulcrum is between the force and 
the weight, the lever is called a lever of the first order; 


HAND-BOOK OF MODERN STEAM FIRE-ENGINES. 359 


when the weight is between the force and the fulcrum, tlie 
lever is of the second order; when the force is between the 
weight and the fulcrum, the lever is of the third order. 
The levers of safety-valves for steam-boilers belong to this 
latter class. 

Machines. —Machines are instruments employed to 
regulate motion so as to save either time or force. The 
maximum effect of machines is the greatest effect which 
can be produced by them. In all machines that work 
with a uniform motion there is a certain velocity, and a 
certain load of resistance that yields the greatest effect, and 
which are therefore more advantageous than any other. 
A machine may be so heavily charged that the motion 
resulting from the application of any given power will be 
but just sufficient to overcome it, and if any motion ensue, 
it will be very trifling, and the whole effect will be very 
small. If the machine is very lightly loaded, it may give 
great velocity to the load; but from the smallness of its 
quantity, the effect may still be very inconsiderable, con¬ 
sequently between these two loads there must be some 
intermediate one that will render the effect the greatest 
possible. This is equally true in the application of 
animal strength as in machines. The maximum effect of 
a machine is produced, when the weight or resistance to 
be overcome is four-ninths of that which the power, when 
fully exerted, is able to balance, or of that resistance 
which is necessary to reduce the machine to rest, and the 
velocity of the part of the machine to which the power is 
applied should be one-third of the greatest velocity of the 
power. 

The moving power and the resistance being both given, 
if the machine be so constructed, that the velocity of the 
point to which the power is applied be to the velocity of 
the point to which the resistance is applied, as four times 











860 HAND-BOOK OF MODERN STEAM FIRE-ENGINES. 

the resistance to nine times the power, the machine will 
work to the greatest possible advantage. This is equally 
true when applied to the strength of animals; that is, a 
man, horse, or other animal, will do the greatest quantity 
of work, by continued labor, when his strength is opposed 
to a resistance equal to four-ninths of his natural strength, 
and his velocity equal to one-third of his greatest velocity 
when not impeded. 

Mass.— Mass is the real quantity of matter in a body, 
and is proportioned to weight when compared in one or 
the same locality. Mass is a constant quantity, whilst 
weight varies with the force of gravity which produces it. 

Matter. — Matter is that of which bodies are composed, 
and occupies space. Matter is recognized as substances in 
contradistinction from geometrical quantities and physical 
phenomena, such as color, shadow, light, heat, electricity, 
and magnetism. 

Mechanical Powers. — Mechanical powers are usually 
denominated the lever, inclined plane, wheel and axle, 
pulley, screw, and wedge. The wheel and axle is, how¬ 
ever, a revolving lever; the screw a revolving inclined 
plane, and the wedge a double inclined plane, thus re¬ 
ducing them to three in number, viz., lever, inclined plane, 
and pulley. All these machines act on the same funda¬ 
mental principle of vertical velocities; accordingly, the 
weight multiplied into the space it moves through is equal 
to the power multiplied into the space it moves through. 
In all machines a portion of the effect is lost in overcoming 
the friction of the working parts ; but in making a calcula¬ 
tion upon them, it is made first as though no friction 
existed, a deduction being afterwards made. 

Rules for Finding the Effects of the Mechanical Powers. 
Inclined Plane. —As the length of the plane is to its height, 
so is the weight to the power. 


HAND-BOOK OF MODERN STEAM FIRE-ENGINES. 861 

Lever. — When the fulcrum (or support) of the lever is 
between the weight and the power, divide the weight to 
be raised by the power, and the quotient is the difference 
of leverage, or the distance from the fulcrum at which the 
power supports the weight. Or, multiply the weight by 
its distance from the fulcrum, and the power by its distance 
from the same point, and the weight and power will be to 
each other as their products. 

When the fulcrum is at one extremity of the lever, and 
the power, or the weight, at the other. As the distance 
between the power, or weight, and the fulcrum is to the 
distance between the weight, or power, and the fulcrum, 
so is the effect to the power or the power to the effect. 

Screw. — As the screw is an inclined plane wound 
round a cylinder, the length of the plane is found by 
adding the square of the circumference of the screw to the 
square of the distance between the threads, and, taking the 
square root of the sum, then the height is the distance 
between the consecutive threads. 

Wedge .— When two bodies are forced from one another 
in a direction parallel to the back of the wedge, then the 
resistance is to the force as the length of the wedge is to 
half its back. 

Wheel and Axle. — The power multiplied by the radius 
of the wheel is equal to the weight multiplied by the radius 
of the axle; as the radius of the wheel is to the radius of 
the axle, so is the effect to the power. When a series of 
wheels and axles act upon each other, either by belts or 
teeth, the weight or velocity will be to the power or unity 
as the product of the radii, or circumferences of the 
wheels, to the product of the radii or circumferences of 
the axles. 

Mechanics. —Mechanics is that branch of natural phil¬ 
osophy which treats of the three simple physical elements, 
31 















362 HAND-BOOK OF MODERN STEAM FIRE-ENGINES. 

force, motion, and time, with their combinations, consti¬ 
tuting power, space, and work. 

(Ylodulus. — The modulus of the elasticity of any sub¬ 
stance is a column of the same substance capable of pro¬ 
ducing a pressure on its base, which is to the weight 
causing a certain degree of compression as the length of 
the substance is to the diminution of its length. 

Momentum. — Momentum, in mechanics, is the same 
as impetus or quantity of motion, and is generally esti¬ 
mated by the product of the velocity and the mass of the 
body. This is a subject which has led to various controver¬ 
sies between philosophers,—some estimating it by the mass 
into the velocity as stated above, while others maintain 
that it varies as the mass into the square of the velocity. 
But this difference seems to have arisen rather from a 
misconception of the term, than from any other cause. 
Those who maintain the former doctrine, understand mo¬ 
mentum to signify the momentary impact; and the advo¬ 
cates of the latter doctrine recognize it as the sum of all 
the impulses, till the motion of the body is destroyed. 

Motion. —Motion, in mechanics, is a change of place, 
or it is that property inherent in matter by which it passes 
from one point of space to another. Motion is expressed 
by the following terms: Move, going, walking, passing, 
transit, involution and evolution, run, locomotion, flux, 
rolling, flow, sweep, wander, shift, flight, current, etc. 

Absolute motion is the absolute change of place in a 
moving body independent of any other motion whatever; 
in which general sense, however, it never falls under our 
observation. All those motions which we consider as 
absolute, are in fact only relative, being referred to the 
earth, which is itself in motion. By absolute motion, 
therefore, we must only understand that which is so 
with regard to some fixed point upon the earth, this 



HAND-BOOK OP MODERN STEAM FIRE-ENGINES. oG3 


being the sense in which it is interpreted by writers on 
this subject. 

Accelerated motion is that which is continually receiv¬ 
ing constant accessions of velocity. 

Angular motion is the motion of a body as referred to 
a centre, about which it revolves. 

Compound motion is that which is produced by two or 
more powers acting in different directions, 
i- Natural motion is that which is natural to bodies or 
that which arises from the action of gravity. 

Parallel Motions. — Contrivances of this kind are re¬ 
quired for the conversion of rotary and alternating an¬ 
gular motion into rectilineal motion, and the converse; 
but the absolute necessity there is of guiding the path of 
a piston in a steam-engine has called forth more attention 
to the principles and mechanism of parallel motions than 
would otherwise, in all probability, have been awarded to 
the subject. 

Relative motion is the change of relative place in one 
or more moving bodies. 

Retarded motion is that which suffers continual diminu¬ 
tion of velocitv, the laws of which are the reverse of those 
for accelerated motion. 

Rotary Motion, turning as a wheel on its axis, pertain¬ 
ing to or resembling the motion of a wheel. Rotary mo¬ 
tions were favorite ones with ancient philosophers. They 
considered a circle as the most perfect of all figures, and 
erroneously concluded that a body in motion would natu¬ 
rally revolve in one. 

To the substitution of circular for straight motions, 

and of continuous for alternating ones, may be attributed 
nearly all the conveniences and elegancies of civilized life. 
It is not too much to assert that the present advanced 
state of science and the arts is due to revolving median- 
















3G4 HAND-BOOK OF MODERN STEAM FIRE-ENGINES. 

ism. From the earliest times it had been an object to con¬ 
vert, whenever practicable, the rectilinear and recipro¬ 
cating movements of machines into circular and contin¬ 
uous ones. Old mechanics seem to have been led to this 
result by that tact or natural sagacity that is more or less 
common to all times and people. Thus the dragging of 
heavy loads on the ground led to the adoption of wheels 
and rollers, — hence carts and carriages. The rotary 
movements of the drill superseded the alternating one of 
the punch and gouge, in making perforations; the whet¬ 
stone gave way to the revolving grindstone; the turning- 
lathe produced round forms infinitely more accurate and 
more expeditiously than the uncertain and irregular carv¬ 
ing or cutting with the knife. 

Uniform motion is when a body moves continually with 
the same velocity, passing over equal spaces in equal times. 

Oscillation, Centre of. —The centre of oscillation is 
that point in a vibrating body in which, if the whole were 
concentrated and attached to the same axis of motion, it • 
would vibrate in the same time the body does in its natural 
state. The centre of oscillation is situated in a right line 
passing through the centre of gravity, and perpendicular 
to the axis of motion. 

Pendulum. — If any heavy body, suspended by an in¬ 
flexible rod from a fixed point, be drawn aside from the 
vertical position, and then let fall, it will descend in the 
arc of a circle, of which the point of suspension is the 
centre. On reaching the vertical position, it will have 
acquired a velocity equal to that which it would have 
acquired by falling vertically through the versed sine of 
the arc which it has described, in consequence of which ' 
it will continue to move in the same arc, until the whole 
velocity is destroyed; and if no other force than gravity 
were in operation, this would take place when the body 


i 


HAND-BOOK OF MODERN STEAM FIRE-ENGINES. 365 


reached a height on the opposite side of the vertical height 
equal to that from which it fell. Having reached this 
height, it would again descend, and so continue to vibrate 
forever; but in consequence of the friction of the axis and 
the resistance of the air, each successive vibration will be 
diminished, and the body soon be brought to rest in the 
vertical position. A body thus suspended and caused to 
vibrate is called a pendulum ; and the passage from the 
greatest distance from the vertical on the one side to the 
greatest distance on the other is called an oscillation. 

Percussion. —The centre of percussion is that point in 
a body revolving about an axis at which, if it struck an 
immovable obstacle, all its motion would be destroyed, or 
it would not incline either way. When an oscillating 
body vibrates with a given angular velocity, and strikes 
an obstacle, the effect of the impact will be the greatest, 
if it be made at the centre of percussion. For in this 
case the obstacle receives the whole revolving motion of 
the body; whereas, if the blow be struck at any other 
point, a part of the motion will be employed in endeav¬ 
oring to continue the rotation. 

Perpetual Motion. — In mechanics, a machine which, 
when set in motion, would continue to move forever, or, at 
least, until destroyed by the friction of its parts, without 
the aid of any exterior cause, would constitute perpetual 
motion. The discovery of perpetual motion has always 
been a celebrated problem in mechanics, on which many 
ingenious, though in general ill-instructed, persons have 
consumed their time; but all the labor bestowed on it has 
proved abortive. In fact, the impossibility of its exist¬ 
ence has been fully demonstrated from the known laws of 
matter. In speaking of perpetual motion, it is to be un¬ 
derstood that, from among the forces by which motion 
may be produced, we are to exclude not only air and 
31* 







36G HAND-BOOK OF MODERN STEAM FIRE-ENGINES. 

water, but other natural agents, as heat, atmospheric 
changes, etc. The only admissible agents are the inertia 
of matter, and its attractive forces, which may all be con¬ 
sidered of the same kind as gravitation. It is an admitted 
principle in philosophy, that action and reaction are equal, 
and that, when motion is communicated from one body to 
another, the first loses just as much as is gained by the 
second. But every moving body is continually retarded 
by two passive forces,—the resistance of the air and fric¬ 
tion. In order, therefore, that motion may be continued 
without diminution, one of two things is necessary—either 
that it be maintained by an exterior force, (in which case 
it would cease to be what we understand by a perpetual 
motion,) or that the resistance of the air and friction be 
annihilated, which is practically impossible. 

The motion cannot be perpetuated till these retarding 
forces are compensated, and they can only be compensated 
by an exterior force, as the force communicated to any 
body cannot be greater than the generating force, which 
is only sufficient to continue the same quantity of motion 
when there is no resistance. The error of confounding 
mere pressure with energy available to produce power is 
the main origin of the majority of attempts at perpetual 
ruction, and even sometimes causes, among confused minds, 
exaggerated expectations about the effects to be obtained 
from mechanical contrivances. A wound-up spring is 
exactly equivalent to a weight. It may exert a certain 
pressure, great in proportion to its size and strength ; but 
unless it is allowed to unwind it, it cannot produce motion 
or power. It is the same with compressed air or gases; 
they are, in fact, nothing but wound-up springs, with this 
difference, however, that, in place of needing mechanical 
power to wind them up, we may use either heat, chemical 
agencies, or electricity. 


HAND-BOOK OF MODERN STEAM FIRE-ENGINES. 367 

Pneumatics. — Pneumatics is the science which treats 
of the mechanical properties of elastic fluids, and particu¬ 
larly of atmospheric air. Elastic fluids are divided into 
two classes — permanent gases, and vapors. The gases 
cannot be converted into the liquid state by any known 
process; whereas the vapors are readily reduced to the 
liquid form by pressure or diminution of temperature. 
In respect of their mechanical properties, there is, how¬ 
ever, no essential difference between the two classes. 
Elastic fluids, in a state of equilibrium, are subject to the 
action of two forces, namely, gravity, and a molecular 
force acting from particle to particle. Gravity acts on 
the gases in the same manner as on all other substances; 
but the action of the molecular forces is altogether 
different from that which takes place among the ele¬ 
mentary particles of solids and liquids; for, in the case 
of solid bodies, the molecules strongly attract each other, 
(whence results their cohesion,) and, in the case of 
liquids, exert a feeble or evanescent attraction, so as to be 
indifferent to internal motion; but, in the case of the 
gases, the molecular forces are repulsive, and the molecules, 
yielding to the action of these forces, tend incessantly to 
recede from each other, and, in fact, do recede until their 
further separation is prevented by an exterior obstacle. 
Thus, air confined within a close vessel exerts a constant 
pressure against the interior surface, which is not sensible, 
only because it is balanced by the equal pressure of the 
atmosphere on the exterior surface. This pressure exerted 
by the air against the sides of a vessel within which it is 
confined is called its elasticity — its elastic force or tension. 

Power. —Power is the product of force and velocity; 
that is to say, a force multiplied by the velocity with 
which it is acting. The term horse-power is a unit of 
power, established by James Watt to be equivalent to a 





368 HAND-BOOK OP MODERN STEAM FIRE-ENGINES. 

force of 33,000 pounds acting with a velocity of one foot 
per minute, or 150 pounds acting with a velocity of 220 
feet per minute, which is the same as a force of 550 pounds 
acting with a velocity of one foot per second. Man-power 
is a unit of power established by Morin to be equivalent 
to 50 foot-pounds of power, or 50 effects; that is to say, a 
man turning a crank with a force of 50 pounds, with 
a velocity of one foot per second, is a standard man¬ 
power. 

Prime Movers. — Prime movers are those machines 
from which we obtain power, through their adaptation to 
the transformation of some available natural force into 
that kind of effort which develops mechanical power. 

Statics is the science of forces in equilibrium. It treats 
of the strength of materials, of bridges, and of girders ; the 
stability of walls, steeples, and towers ; the static momen¬ 
tum of levers, with their combinations into weighing-scales, 
windlasses, pulleys, funicular machines, inclined planes, 
screws, catenaria, and all kinds of gearing. 

Tools. — By the term tools, according to the definition 
given by Rennie, we understand instruments employed in 
the manual arts for facilitating mechanical operations by 
means of percussion, penetration, separation, and abrasion, 
of the substances operated upon, and for all which opera¬ 
tions various motions are required to be imparted either 
to the tool or to the work. 

Torsion. — Torsion, in mechanics, is the twisting or 
wrenching of a body by the exertion of a lateral -force. 
If a slender rod of metal, suspended vertically, and having 
its upper end fixed, be twisted through a certain angle by 
a force acting in a plane perpendicular to its axis, it will, 
on the removal of the force, untwist itself, or return in the 
opposite direction with a greater or less velocity, and after 
a series of oscillations will come to rest in its original 


HAND-BOOK OF MODERN STEAM FIRE-ENGINES. 


369 


position. The limits of torsion within which the body will 
return to its original state depend on its elasticity. A fine 
wire of a few feet in length may be twisted through several 
revolutions, without impairing its elasticity ; and within 
those limits the force evolved is found to be perfectly 
regular, and directly proportional to the angular displace¬ 
ment from the position of rest. If the angular displace¬ 
ment exceeds a certain limit (as in a wire of lead, for ex¬ 
ample, before disruption takes place), the particles will 
assume a new arrangement, or take a set, and will not 
return to their original position on the withdrawal of the 
disturbing force. 

Velocity. — Velocity is rate of motion. Velocity is 
independent of space and time, but in order to obtain its 
value or expression as a quantity, we compare space with 
time. Thus, when the value of the velocity of a moving 
body is required, we measure the space which the body 
passes through, and divide that space by the time of pas¬ 
sage, and the quotient is the velocity. Velocity, or rate 
of motion, is expressed by a variety of terms : speed, swift¬ 
ness, rapidity, fleetuess, speediness, quickness, haste, hurry, 
race, forced march, gallop, trot, run, rush, scud, dash, 
spring, etc. 

Weight .— The weight of a body is the force of attrac¬ 
tion between the earth and that body. The weight of a 
body is greatest at the surface of the earth, and decreases 
above or below that surface. Above the surface, the 
weight decreases as the square of its distance from the 
centre of the earth, and below the surface the weight de¬ 
creases simply as its distance from the centre. 

Weights and Pleasures. — The weights and measures 
of this country are identical with those of England. In 
both countries they repose, in fact, upon actually existing 
masses of metal (brass), which have been individually 

Y 






370 HAND-BOOK OF MODERN STEAM FIRE-ENGINES. 

declared by law to be the units of the system. In scien¬ 
tific theory, they are supposed to rest upon a permanent 
and universal law of nature— the gravitation of distilled 
water at a certain temperature and under a certain atmos¬ 
pheric pressure. In this aspect, the origination is with 
the grains, which must be such that 252,458 of these units 
of brass will be in just equilibrium with a cubic inch of 
distilled water, when the mercury stands at 30 inches in a 
barometer, and at 62 degrees in a thermometer of Fah. 
Unfortunately, the expounders of this theory in England 
used only the generic term brass, and failed to define the 
specific gravity of the metal to be employed; the conse¬ 
quence of this omission is to leave room for an error of 
To'oWo * n every attempt to reproduce or compare the 
results. This is the minimum possible error; the maxi¬ 
mum would be a fraction of the difference in specific 
gravity between the heaviest and lightest brass that can 
be cast. 

Work. — Work is force acting through space, and is 
measured by multiplying the measure of the force by the 
measure of the space. Work is said to be performed when 
a pressure is exerted upon a body, and the body is thereby 
moved through space. 

Work done is expressed by the following terms: hauled, 
dragged, raised, heaved, tilted, broken, crushed, thrown, 
wrought, fermented, labored, etc., or any expression which 
implies the three simple elements of force, velocity, and 
time. Power multiplied by the time of action is work; 
work divided by time is power. If work was independent 
of time, then any amount of work could be accomplished 
in no time. The greatest amount of work known to have 
been accomplished in the shortest time is that in the ex¬ 
plosion of nitro-glyceriue, which is instantaneous to our 
perception ; but it required time, notwithstanding. 



HAND-BOOK OF MODERN STEAM FIRE-ENGINES. 371 


Workmanday. —A laborer working eight hours per 
day can exert a power of 50 foot-pounds. A day’s work 
will then be 50 x 8 x 60 x 60 = 1,440,000 foot-pounds of 
work, which may be termed a workmanday. All kinds 
of heavy work can be estimated in workmaudays, such as 
the building of a house, a bridge, a steamboat, canal and 
railroad excavations and embankments, loading or unload¬ 
ing a ship, powder and steam-boiler explosions, the capa¬ 
bility of heavy ordnance, etc. 

The magnitude of the unit workmanday is easily con¬ 
ceived, because it is that amount of work which a laborer 
can accomplish in one day. Work expressed in foot¬ 
pounds, divided by 1,440,000, gives the work in workman- 
days. 

MENSURATION OF THE CIRCLE, CYLINDER, SPHERE, 

ETC. 

> : * v 

1. The areas of circles are to each other as the squares 
of their diameters. 

2. The diameter of a circle being 1, its circumference 
equals 3.1416. 

3. The diameter of a circle is equal to .31831 of its 
circumference. 

4. The square of the diameter of a circle being 1, its 
area equals .7854. 

5. The square root of the area of a circle multiplied 
by 1.12837 equals its diameter. 

6. The diameter of a circle multiplied by .8862, or the 
circumference multiplied by .2821, equals the side of a 
square of equal area. 

7. Take the sum of the squares of half the chord and 
versed sine, and divide by the versed sine, the quotient 
equals the diameter of corresponding circle. 




















372 HAND-BOOK OF MODERN STEAM FIRE-ENGINES. 


8. Subtract the chord of the whole arc of a circle from 
eight times the chord of half the arc, one-third of the re¬ 
mainder equals the length of the arc; or, 

9. The number of degrees contained in the arc of a 
circle, multiplied by the diameter of the circle and by 
.008727, the product equals the length cf the arc in equal 
terms of unity. 

10. The length of the arc of a sector of a circle multi¬ 
plied by its radius, equals twice the area of the sector. 

11. The area of the segment of a circle equals the area 
of the sector, minus the area of a triangle whose vertex is 
the centre, and whose base equals the chord of the seg¬ 
ment; or, 

12. The area of a segment may be obtained by dividing 
the height of the segment by the diameter of the circle, 
and multiplying the corresponding tabular area by the 
square of the diameter. 

13. The sum of the diameters of two concentric circles 
multiplied by their difference, and by .7854, equals the 
area of the ring or space between them. 

14. The sum of the thickness and internal diameter of 
a cylindric ring multiplied by the square of its thickuess, 
and by 2.4674, equals its solidity. 

15. The circumference of a cylinder multiplied by its 
length or height equals its convex surface. 

16. The area of the end of a cylinder multiplied by its 
depth equals its cubical capacity. 

17. The square of the diameter of a cylinder multiplied 
by its length, and divided by any other required length, 
the square root of the quotient equals the diameter of the 
other cylinder of equal contents or capacity. 

18. The square of the diameter of a sphere multiplied 
by 3.1416 equals its convex surface. 

19. The cube of the diameter of a sphere multiplied by 
.5236 equals its solid contents. 


HAND-BOOK OF MODERN STEAM FIRE-ENGINES. 378 


20. The height of any spherical segment or zone multi¬ 
plied by the diameter of the sphere of which it is a part, 
and by 3.1416, equals the area or convex surface of the 
segment; or, 

21. The height of the segment multiplied by the cir¬ 
cumference of the sphere of which it is a part, equals the 
area. 

22. The solidity of any spherical segment is equal to 
three times the square of the radius of its base, plus the 
square of its height, and multiplied by its height and by 
.5236. 

23. The solidity of a spherical zone equals the sum of 

the squares of the radii of its two ends, and one-third the 
square of its height multiplied by the height and by 
1.5708. 

24. The capacity of a cylinder 1 foot in diameter and 
1 foot in length equals 5.875 of a United States gallon. 

25. The capacity of a cylinder 1 inch in diameter and 
1 inch in length equals .0034 of a United States gallon. 

26. The capacity of a sphere 1 foot in diameter equals 
3.9156 United States gallons. 

27. The capacity of a sphere 1 inch in diameter equals 
.002165 of a United States gallon; hence, 

28. The capacity of any other cylinder in United States 
gallons is obtained by multiplying the square of its diam¬ 
eter by its length; and the capacity of any other spher¬ 
ical body may be calculated by multiplying the cube of 
its diameter by its length, and by the number of United 
States gallons in the unity of its measurement, as con¬ 
tained in the last four paragraphs. 

32 











374 HAND-BOOK OF MODERN STEAM FIRE-ENGINES. 


PROPERTIES OF THE CIRCLE. 


A circular vessel will contain a greater quantity than a 
vessel of any other shape, made of the same amount of 
material; that is to say, if an iron plate 10 feet long was 
rolled into a cylinder, and a bottom put in it, it would 
hold more water than if the 10 feet plate had been bent 
square, or any other shape. 


The diameter of a circle is a straight line 
drawn through its centre, touching both sides..., 

The radius of a circle is half the diameter, 
or the distance from the centre to the perim¬ 
eter. 

A chord is a straight line joining any two 
places in the circumference of a circle. 

The versed sine is a perpendicular joining 
the middle of the chord and circumference of a 
circle. 




An arc is any part of the circumference of a 
circle. 

Multiply the diameter by 3.1416, and the product is the 
circumference. 

Multiply the circumference by .31831, and the result is 
the diameter. 

Multiply the square of the diameter, viz., the diameter 
multiplied by itself, by .7854, and the product is the area. 

Multiply the square root of the area by 1.12837, and 
the product is the diameter. 

Multiply the diameter by .8862, and the product is the 
side of a square of equal area. 

Multiply the side of a square by 1.128, and the product 
is the diameter of a circle of equal area. 












HAND-BOOK OF MODERN STEAM FIRE-ENGINES. 375 


TABLE 

CONTAINING THE DIAMETERS, CIRCUMFERENCES, AND AREAS OF 
CIRCLES FROM OF AN INCH TO 20 INCHES, ADVANCING BY -fa 
OF AN INCH UP TO 10 INCHES, AND BY £ OF AN INCH FROM 10 TO 
20 INCHES. 


Diam. 

ClRCUM. 

Area. 

Diam. 

ClRCUM. 

Area. 

Inch. 

A 

.1963 

.0030 

Inch. 

A 

7.6576 

4.6664 

£ 

.3927 

.0122 

£ 

7.8540 

4.9087 

A 

.5890 

.0276 

A 

8.0503 

5.1573 

£ 

.7854 

.0490 

t 

8.2467 

5.4119 

A 

.9817 

.0767 

it 

8.4430 

5.6727 

3 

8 

1.1781 

.1104 

3 . 

4 

8.6394 

5.9395 

A 

1.3744 

.1503 

it 

8.8357 

6.2126 

£ 

1.5708 

.1963 

7 

¥ 

9.0321 

6.4918 

A 

1.7671 

.2485 

J 5 

T¥ 

9.2284 

6.7772 

X 

8 

1.9635 

.3068 

3 

9.4248 

7.0686 

it 

2.1598 

.3712 

A 

9.6211 

7.3662 

.3. 

4 

2.3562 

.4417 

£ 

9.8175 

7.6699 

1 3 

Tg 

2.5525 

.5185 

A 

10.0138 

7.9798 

S' 

2.7489 

.6013 

£ 

10.2120 

8.2957 

it 

2.9452 

.6903 

A 

10.4065 

8.6179 

l 

3.1416 

.7854 

3 

8 

10.6029 

8.9462 

A 

3.3379 

.8861 

A 

10.7992 

9.2806 

£ 

3.5343 

.9940 

l 

% 

10.9956 

9.6211 

A 

3.7306 

1.1075 

A 

11.1919 

9.9678 

£ 

3.9270 

1.2271 

t 

11.3883 

10.3206 

5 

Tff 

4.1233 

1.3529 

it 

11.5846 

10.6796 

3 

"8 

4.3197 

1.4848 

3. 

4 

11.7810 

11.0446 

A 

4.5160 

1.6229 

it 

11.9773 

11.4159 

£ 

4.7124 

1.7671 

7 

8 

12.1737 

11.7932 

A 

4.9087 

1.9175 

it 

12.3700' 

12.1768 

t 

5.1051 

2.0739 

4 

12.5664 

12.5664 

it 

5.3014 

2.2365 

A 

12.7627 

12.9622 

ii 

5.4978 

2.4052 

£ 

12.9591 

13.3640 

¥ 

•g 

5.6941 

2.5801 

A 

13.1554 

13.7721 

5.8905 

2.7611 

£ 

13.3518 

14.1862 

1 5 

T<> 

2 

6.0868 

2.9483 

A 

13.5481 

14.6066 

6.2832 

3.1416 

3 

8 

13.7445 

15.0331 

A 

6.4795 

3.3411 

A 

13.9408 

15.4657 

£ 

6.6759 

3.5465 

£ 

14.1372 

15.9043 

A 

6.8722 

3.7582 

A 

14.3335 

16.3492 

£ 

7.0686 

3.9760 

t 

14.5299 

16.8001 

A 

7.2640 

4.2001 

H 

14.7262 

17.2573 

1 

7.4613 

4.4302 

1 

14.9226 

17.7205 

































376 HAND-BOOK OF MODERN STEAM FIRE-ENGINES. 

TABLE — ( Continued ) 

CONTAINING THE DIAM., CIRCUMFERENCES, AND AREAS OF CIRCLES. 


Diam. 

ClRCUM. 

Area. 

Diam. 

ClRCUM. 

Area. 

Inch. 



Inch. 



13 

TF 

15.1189 

18.1900 

ft 

23.3656 

43.4455 

7 

8 

15.3153 

18.6655 

2 

23.5620 

44.1787 

1 5 

TF 

15.5716 

19.1472 

TF 

23.7583 

44.9181 

5 

15.7080 

19.6350 

t 

23.9547 

45.6636 

1*6 

15.9043 

20.1290 

TF 

24.1510 

46.4153 

i 

16.1007 

20.6290 

a 

4 

24.3474 

47.1730 

A 

16.2970 

21.1252 

18 

TF 

24.5437 

47.9370 

i 

16.4934 

21.6475 

7 

8 

24.7401 

48.7070 

TF 

16.6897 

22.1661 

1 5 

TF 

24.9364 

49.4833 

3 

8 

16.8861 

22.6907 

8 

25.1328 

50.2656 

tV 

17.0824 

23.2215 

TF 

25.3291 

51.0541 

i 

17.2788 

23.7583 

i 

25.5255 

51.8486 

9 

TF 

17.4751 

24.3014 

t 3 f 

25.7218 

52.8994 . 

£ 

8 

17.6715 

24.8505 

i 

25.9182 

53.4562 

1 1 

TF 

17.8678 

25.4058 

TF 

26.1145 

54.2748 

a 

4 

18.0642 

25.9672 

3 

8 

26.3109 

55.0885 

1 3 

TF 

18.2605 

26.5348 

tV 

26.5072 

55.9138 

7 

8 

18.4569 

27.1085 

2 

26.7036 

56.7451 

1 3 

TF 

18.6532 

27.6884 

9 

TF 

26.8999 

57.5887 

6 

18.8496 

28.2744 

5 

8 

27.0963 

58.4264 

tf 

19.0459 

28.8665 

1 1 

TF 

27.2926 

59.7762 

i 

19.2423 

29.4647 

a 

4 

27.4890 

60.1321 

tf 

19.4386 

30.0798 

1 3 

TF 

27.6853 

60.9943 

i 

19.6350 

30.6796 

7 

8 

27.8817 

61.8625 

ft 

19.8313 

31.2964 

1 5 

TF 

28.0780 

62.7369 

3 

8 

20.0277 

31.9192 

9 

28.2744 

63.6174 

tf 

20.2240 

32.5481 

TF 

28.4707 

64.5041 

i 

20.4204 

33.1831 

i 

28.6671 

65.3968 

TF 

20.6167 

33.8244 

TF 

28.8634 

66.2957 

1 

20.8131 

34.4717 

i 

29.0598 

67.2007 

xi 

21.0094 

35.1252 

t 5 f 

29.2561 

68.1120 

a 

4 

21.2058 

35.7847 

3 

8 

29.4525 

69.0293 

1 3 

TF 

21.4021 

36.4505 

tV 

29.6488 

69.9528 

7 

F 

21.5985 

37.1224 

h 

29.8452 

70.8823 

it 

21.7948 

37.8005 

TF 

30.0415 

71.8181 

7 

21.9912 

38.4846 

t 

30.2379 

72.7599 

TF 

22.1875 

39.1749 

it 

30.4342 

73.7079 

i 

22.3839 

39.8713 

a 

4 

30.6306 

74.6620 

A 

22.5802 

40.5469 

it 

30.8269 

75.6223 

i 

22.7766 

41.2825 

i 

31.0233 

76.5887 

A 

22.9729 

41.9974 

it 

31.2196 

77.5613 

3 

8 

23.1693 

42.7184 

10 

31.4160 

78.5400 


















HAND-BOOK OF MODERN STEAM FIRE-ENGINES. 377 


TAB LE — ( Continued) 


CONTAINING THE DIAM., CIRCUMFERENCES, AND AREAS OF CIRCLES. 


Diam. 

ClRCUM. 

Area. 

Diam. 

ClRCUM. 

Area. 

Inch. 



Inch. 



£ 

31.8087 

80.5157 

f 

48.3021 

185.6612 

£ 

32.2014 

82.5160 

£ 

48.6948 

188.6923 

f 

32.5941 

84.5409 

1 

49.0875 

191.7480 

£ 

32.9868 

86.5903 

A 

4 

49.4802 

194.8282 

t 

33.3795 

88.6643 

7 

8 

49.8729 

197.9330 

£ 

4 

33.7722 

90.7627 

16 

50.2656 

201.0624 

7 

¥ 

34.1649 

92.8858 

£ 

50.6583 

204.2162 

11 

34.5576 

95.0334 

£ 

51.0510 

207.3946 

£ 

34.9503 

97.2053 

1 

51.4437 

210.5976 

£ 

35.3430 

99.4021 

£ 

51.8364 

213.8251 

1 

35.7357 

101.6234 

5. 

52.2291 

217.0772 

£ 

36.1284 

103.8691 

4 

52.6218 

220.3537 

| 

36.5211 

106.1394 

7 

¥ 

53.0145 

223.6549 

& 

36.9138 

108.4342 

17 

53.4072 

226.9806 

7 

■gf 

37.3065 

110.7536 

£ 

53.7999 

230.3308 

12 

37.6992 

113.0976 

£ 

54.1926 

233.7055 

£ 

38.0919 

115.4660 

f 

54.5853 

237.1049 

£ 

38.4846 

117.8590 

£ 

54.9780 

240.5287 

f 

38.8773 

120.2766 

I 

55.3707 

243.9771 

£ 

39.2700 

122.7187 

A 

4 

55.7634 

247.4500 

I 

39.6627 

125.1854 

7 

¥ 

56.1561 

250.9475 

A 

40.0554 

127.6765 

18 

56.5488 

254.4696 

7 

40.4481 

130.1923 

£ 

56.9415 

258.0161 

13 

40.8408 

132.7326 

£ 

57.3342 

261.5872 

£ 

41.2338 

135.2974 

3 

8 

57.7269 

265.1829 

l 

41.6262 

137.8867 

£ 

58.1196 

268.8031 

A 

8 

£ 

1 

3 

42.0189 

140.5007 

5 

1 

58.5123 

272.4479 

42.4116 

143.1391 

58.9056 

276.1171 

42.8043 

145.8021 

7 

¥ 

59.2977 

279.8110 

43.1970 

148.4896 

19 

59.6904 

283.5294 

¥ 

43.5897 

151.2017 

£ 

60.0831 

287.2723 

14 

43.9824 

153.9384 

£ 

60.4758 

291.0397 

£ 

£ 

1 

£ 

1 

a 

44.3751 

156.6995 

3 

¥ 

60.8685 

294.8312 

44.7676 

159.4852 

£ 

61.2612 

298.6483 

45.1605 

162.2956 

5 

¥ 

61.6539 

302.4894 

45.5532 

165.1303 

a. 

4 

62.0466 

306.3550 

45.9459 

167.9896 

¥ 

62.4393 

310.2452 

46.3386, 

170.8735 

20 

62.8320 

314.1600 

£ 

46.7313 

173.7820 




15 

47.1240 

176.7150 




£ 

47.5167 

179.6725 




£ 

47.9094 

182.6545 





32 * 




























378 HAND-BOOK OF MODERN STEAM FIRE-ENGINES. 

LOGARITHMS. 

The logarithm of a number is the exponent of a power 
to which another given' invariable number must be raised 
in order to produce the first number. Thus, in the com¬ 
mon system of logarithms, in which the invariable num¬ 
ber is 10, the logarithm of 1000 is 3, because 10 raised to 
the third power is 1000. In general, if a x =y, in which 
equation a is a given invariable number, then x is the 
logarithm of y. All absolute numbers, whether positive 
or negative, whole or fractional, may be produced by 
raising an invariable number to suitable powers. The 
invariable number is called the base of the system of log¬ 
arithms ; it may be any number whatever greater or less 
than unity; but having been once chosen, it must remain 
the same for the formation of all numbers in the same 
system. Whatever number may be selected for the base, 
the logarithm of the base is 1, and the logarithm of 1 is 0. 

These properties of logarithms are of very great im¬ 
portance in facilitating the arithmetical operations of 
multiplication and division. For, if a multiplication is 
to be effected, it is only necessary to take from the loga¬ 
rithmic tables the logarithms of the factors, and add them 
into one sum, which gives the logarithm of the required 
product; and, on finding in the table the number corre¬ 
sponding to this new logarithm, the product itself is ob¬ 
tained. Thus, by means of a table of logarithms, the 
operation of multiplication is performed by simple addi¬ 
tion. In like manner, if one number is to be divided by 
another, it is only neeessary to subtract the logarithm of 
the divisor from that of the dividend, and to find in the 
table the number corresponding to this difference, which 
number is the quotient required. Thus, the quotient of a 
division is obtained by simple subtraction. 


HAND-BOOK OF MODERN STEAM FIRE-ENGINES. 379 


LOGARITHMS OF NUMBERS FROM 0 TO 1000* 


No. 

O 

1 

o 

3 

4 

5 

6 

7 

8 

9 

Prop. 

0 

0 

00000 

30103 

47712 

60206 

69897 

77815 

84510 

90309 

95424 


10 

00000 

00432 

00860 

01283 

01703 

02118 

02530 

02938 

03342 

03742 

415 

11 

04139 

04532 

04921 

05307 

05690 

06069 

06445 

06818 

07188 

07554 

379 

12 

07918 

08278 

08636 

08990 

093442 

09691 

10037 

10380 

10721 

11059 

349 

13 

11394 

11727 

12057 

12385 

12710 

13033 

13353 

13672 

13987 

14301 

323 

14 

14613 

14921 

15228 

15533 

15836 

16136 

16435 

16731 

17026 

17318 

300 

15 

17609 

17897 

18184 

18469 

18752 

19033 

19312 

19590 

19865 

20139 

281 

16 

20412 

20682 

20951 

21218 

21484 

21748 

22010 

22271 

22530 

22788 

264 

17 

23045 

23299 

23552 

23804 

24054 

24303 

24551 

24797 

25042 

25285 

249 

18 

25527 

25767 

26007 

26245 

26481 

26717 

26951 

27184 

27415 

27646 

236 

19 

27875 

28103 

28330 

28555 

28780 

29003 

29225 

29446 

29666 

29885 

223 

20 

30103 

30319 

30535 

30749 

30963 

31175 

31386 

31597 

31806 

32014 

212 

21 

32222 

32428 

32633 

32838 

33041 

33243 

33445 

33646 

33845 

34044 

202 

22 

34242 

34439 

34635 

34830 

35024 

35218 

35410 

35602 

35793 

35983 

194 

23 

36173 

36361 

36548 

36735 

36921 

37106 

37291 

37474 

37657 

37839 

185 

24 

38021 

38201 

38381 

38560 

38739 

38916 

39093 

39269 

39445 

39619 

177 

25 

39794 

39967 

40140 

40312 

40483 

40654 

40824 

40993 

41162 

41330 

171 

26 

41497 

41664 

41830 

41995 

42160 

42324 

42488 

42651 

42813 

42975 

164 

27 

43436 

43296 

43456 

43616 

43775 

43933 

44090 

44248 

44404 

44560 

158 

28 

44716 

44870 

45024 

45178 

45331 

45484 

45636 

45788 

45939 

46089 

153 

29 

46240 

46389 

46538 

46686 

46884 

46982 

47129 

47275 

47421 

47567 

148 

30 

47712 

47856 

48000 

48144 

48287 

48430 

48572 

48713 

48855 

48995 

143 

31 

49136 

49276 

49415 

49554 

49693 

49831 

49968 

50105 

50242 

50379 

138 

32 

50515 

50650 

50785 

50920 

51054 

51188 

51321 

51454 

51587 

51719 

134 

33 

51851 

51982 

52113 

52244 

52374 

52504 

52633 

52763 

52891 

53020 

130 

34 

53148 

53275 

53102 

53529 

53655 

53781 

53907 

54033 

54157 

54282 

126 

35 

54407 

54530 

54654 

54777 

54900 

55022 

55145 

55266 

55388 

55509 

122 

36 

55630 

55750 

55870 

55990 

56410 

56229 

56348 

56466 

56584 

56702 

119 

37 

56820 

56937 

570,54 

57170 

57287 

57403 

57518 

57634 

57749 

57863 

116 

38 

57978 

58002 

5S206 

58319 

58433 

58546 

58658 

58771 

58883 

58995 

113 

39 

59106 

59217 

59328 

59439 

59549 

59659 

59769 

59879 

59988 

60097 

110 

40 

60206 

60314 

60422 

60530 

60638 

60745 

60852 

60959 

61066 

61172 

107 

41 

61278 

61384 

61489 

61595 

61700 

61804 

61909 

62013 

62117 

62221 

104 

42 

62325 

62428 

62531 

62634 

62736 

62838 

62941 

63042 

63144 

63245 

102 

43 

63347 

63447 

63548 

63648 

63749 

63848 

63948 

64048 

64147 

64246 

99 

44 

64345 

64443 

64542 

64640 

64738 

64836 

64933 

65030 

65127 

65224 

98 

45 

65321 

65417 

65513 

65609 

65075 

65801 

65896 

65991 

66086 

66181 

96 

46 

66276 

66370 

66464 

66558 

66651 

66745 

66838 

66931 

67024 

67117 

94 

47 

67210 

67302 

67394 

67486 

67577 

67669 

67760 

67851 

67942 

68033 

92 

48 

68124 

68214 

68304 

68394 

68484 

68574 

68663 

68752 

68842 

68930 

90 

49 

69020 

69108 

69196 

69284 

69372 

69460 

69548 

69635 

69722 

69810 

88 

50 

69897 

69983 

70070 

70156 

70243 

70329 

70415 

70500 

70586 

70671 

86 

51 

70757 

70842 

70927 

71011 

71096 

71180 

71265 

71349 

71433 

71516 

84 

52 

71600 

71683 

71767 

71850 

71933 

72015 

72098 

72181 

72263 

72345 

82 

53 

72428 

72509 

72591 

72672 

72754 

72835 

72916 

72997 

73078 

73158 

81 

54 

73239 

73319 

73399 

73480 

73559 

73639 

73719 

73798 

73878 

73957 

80 

55 

74036 

74115 

74193 

74272 

74351 

74429 

74507 

74585 

74663 

74741 

78 

56 

74818 

74896 

74973 

75050 

75127 

75204 

75281 

75358 

75434 

75511 

77 

57 

75587 

75663 

75739 

75815 

75891 

75966 

76042 

76117 

76192 

76267 

75 

58 

76342 

76417 

76492 

76566 

76641 

76715 

76789 

76863 

76937 

77011 

74 

59 

77085 

77158 

77232 

77305 

77378 

77451 

77524 

77597 

77670 

77742 

73 

60 

77815 

77887 

77959 

78031 

78103 

78175 

78247 

78318 

78390 

78461 

72 

61 

78533 

78604 

78675 

78746 

78816 

78887 

78958 

79028 

79098 

79169 

71 

62 

79239 

79309 

79379 

79448 

79518 

79588 

79657 

79726 

79796 

79865 

70 

63 

79934 

80002 

80071 

80140 

80208 

80277 

80345 

80413 

80482 

80550 

69 


* Each logarithm is supposed to have the decimal sign . before it 




















































380 HAND-BOOK OF MODERN STEAM FIRE-ENGINES. 


LOGARITHMS OF NUMBERS FROM 0 TO 1000. 

{Continued.) 


No. 

O 

1 

2 

3 

4 

5 

6 

7 

8 

9 

Prop. 

64 

80618 

80685 

80753 

80821 

80888 

80956 

81023 

81090 

81157 

81224 

68 

65 

81291 

81358 

81424 

81491 

81557 

81624 

81690 

81756 

81822 

81888 

67 

66 

819.54 

82020 

82085 

82151 

82216 

82282 

82:347 

82412 

82477 

82542 

66 

67 

82607 

82672 

82736 

82801 

82866 

82930 

82994 

83058 

83123 

83187 

65 

68 

83250 

83314 

83378 

83442 

83505 

83569 

83632 

83695 

83758 

83821 

64 

69 

83884 

83947 

84010 

84073 

84136 

84198 

84260 

84323 

84385 

84447 

63 

70 

84509 

84571 

84633 

84695 

84757 

84818 

84880 

84941 

85003 

85064 

62 

71 

85125 

85187 

85248 

85309 

85369 

85430 

85491 

85551 

85612 

85672 

61 

72 

85733 

85793 

85853 

85913 

85973 

86033 

86093 

86153 

86213 

86272 

60 

73 

86332 

86391 

86451 

86510 

86569 

86628 

86687 

86746 

86805 

86864 

59 

74 

86923 

86981 

87040 

87098 

87157 

87215 

87273 

87332 

87390 

87448 

58 

75 

87506 

87564 

87621 

87679 

87737 

87794 

87852 

87909 

87966 

88024 

57 

76 

88081 

88138 

88195 

88252 

88309 

88366 

88422 

88479 

88536 

88592 

56 

77 

88649 

88705 

88761 

88818 

88874 

88930 

88986 

89042 

89098 

89153 

56 

78 

89209 

89265 

89320 

89376 

89431 

89487 

89542 

89597 

89652 

89707 

55 

79 

89762 

89817 

89872 

89927 

89982 

90036 

90091 

90145 

90200 

90254 

54 

80 

90309 

90363 

90417 

90471 

90525 

90579 

90633 

90687 

90741 

90794 

54 

81 

90848 

90902 

90955 

91009 

91062 

91115 

91169 

91222 

91275 

91328 

53 

82 

91381 

91434 

91487 

91540 

91592 

91645 

91698 

91750 

91803 

91855 

53 

83 

91907 

91960 

92012 

92064 

92116 

92168 

92220 

92272 

92324 

92376 

52 

84 

92427 

92479 

92531 

92582 

92634 

92685 

92737 

92788 

92839 

92890 

51 

85 

92941 

92993 

93044 

93095 

93146 

93196 

93247 

93298 

93348 

93399 

51 

86 

93449 

93500 

93550 

93601 

93651 

93701 

93751 

93802 

93852 

93902 

50 

87 

93951 

94001 

94051 

94101 

94151 

94200 

94250 

94300 

94349 

94398 

49 

88 

94448 

94497 

94546 

94596 

94645 

94694 

94743 

94792 

94841 

94890 

49 

89 

94939 

94987 

95036 

95085 

95133 

95182 

95230 

95279 

95327 

95376 

48 

90 

95424 

95472 

95520 

95568 

95616 

95664 

95712 

95760 

95808 

95856 

48 

91 

95904 

95951 

95999 

96047 

96094 

96142 

96189 

96236 

96284 

96331 

48 

92 

96378 

96426 

96473 

96520 

96507 

96614 

96661 

96708 

96754 

96801 

47 

93 

96848 

96895 

96941 

96988 

97034 

97081 

97127 

97174 

97220 

97266 

47 

94 

97312 

97359 

97405 

97451 

97497 

97543 

97589 

97635 

97680 

97726 

46 

95 

97772 

97818 

97863 

97909 

97954 

98000 

98045 

98091 

98136 

98181 

46 

96 

98227 

98272 

98317 

98362 

98407 

98452 

98497 

98542 

98587 

98632 

45 

97 

98677 

98721 

98766 

98811 

98855 

98900 

98945 

98989 

99033 

99078 

45 

98 

99122 

99166 

99211 

99255 

99299 

99343 

99387 

99431 

99475 

99519 

44 

99 

99563 

99607 

99657 

99694 

99738 

99782 

99825 

99869 

99913 

99956 

44 


HYPERBOLIC LOGARITHMS. 

Hyperbolic logarithms is a system of logarithms so 
called because the numbers express the areas between the 
asymptote and curve of the hyperbola. The hyperbolic 
logarithm of any number is to the common logarithm of 
the same number in the ratio of 2'30258509 to 1, or as 1 
to *43429448. 


























HAND-BOOK OF MODERN STEAM FIRE-ENGINES. 381 


TABLE 

OF HYPERBOLIC LOGARITHMS. 


Num . 

Log . 

1.01 

.0099 

1.02 

.0198 

1.03 

.0295 

1.04 

.0392 

1.05 

.0487 

1.06 

.0582 

1.07 

.0676 

1.08 

.0769 

1.09 

.0861 

1.10 

.0953 

1.11 

.1043 

1.12 

.1133 

1.13 

.1222 

1.14 

.1310 

1.15 

.1397 

1.16 

.1484 

1.17 

.1570 

1.18 

.1655 

1.19 

.1739 

1.20 

.1823 

1.21 

.1962 

1.22 

.1988 

1.23 

.2070 

1.24 

.2151 

1.25 

.2231 

1.26 

.2341 

1.27 

.2390 

1.28 

.2468 

1.29 

.2546 

1.30 

.2623 

1.31 

.2700 

1.32 

.2776 

1.33 

.2851 

1.34 

.2926 

1.35 

.3001 

1.36 

.3074 

1.37 

.3148 

1.38 

.3220 

1.39 

.3293 

1.40 

.3364 

1.41 

.3435 

1.42 

.3506 


Num . 

Log . 

1.43 

.3576 

1.44 

.3646 

1.45 

.3715 

1.46 

.3784 

1.47 

.3852 

1.48 

.3920 

1.49 

.3987 

1.50 

.4054 

1.51 

.4121 

1.52 

.4187 

1.53 

.4252 

1.54 

.4317 

1.55 

.4382 

1.56 

.4446 

1.57 

.4510 

1.58 

.4574 

1.59 

.4637 

1.60 

.4700 

1.61 

.4762 

1.62 

.4824 

1.63 

.4885 

1.64 

.4946 

1.65 

.5007 

1.66 

.5068 

1.67 

.5128 

1.68 

.5187 

1.69 

.5247 

1.70 

.5306 

1.71 

.5364 

1.72 

.5423 

1.73 

.5481 

1.74 

.5538 

1.75 

.5596 

1.76 

.5653 

1.77 

.5709 

1.78 

.5766 

1.79 

.5822 

1.80 

.5877 

1.81 

.5933 

1.82 

.5988 

1.83 

.6043 

1.84 

.6097 


Num . 

Log . 

1.85 

.6151 

1.86 

.6205 

1.87 

.6259 

1.88 

.6312 

1.89 

.6365 

1.90 

.6418 

1.91 

.6471 

1.92 

.6523 

1.93 

.6575 

1.94 

.6626 

1.95 

.6678 

1.96 

.6729 

1.97 

.6780 

1.98 

.6830 

1.99 

.6881 

2.00 

.6931 

2.01 

.6981 

2.02 

.7030 

2.03 

.7080 

2.04 

.7129 

2.05 

.7178 

2.06 

.7227 

2.07 

.7275 

2.08 

.7323 

2.09 

.7371 

2.10 

.7419 

2.11 

.7466 

2.12 

.7514 

2.13 

.7561 

2.14 

.7608 

2.15 

.7654 

2.16 

.7701 

2.17 

.7747 

2.18 

.7793 

2.19 

.7839 

2.20 

.7884 

2.21 

.7929 

2.22 

.7975 

2.23 

.8021 

2.24 

.8064 

2.25 

.8109 

2.26 

.8153 


Num . 

Log . 

2.27 

.8197 

2.28 

.8241 

2.29 

.8285 

2.30 

.8329 

2.31 

.8372 

2.32 

.8415 

2.33 

.8458 

2.34 

.8501 

2.35 

.8544 

2.36 

.8586 

2.37 

.8628 

2.38 

.8671 

2.39 

.8712 

2.40 

.8754 

2.41 

.8796 

2.42 

.8837 

2.43 

.8878 

2.44 

.8919 

2.45 

.8960 

2.46 

.9001 

2.47 

.9042 

2.48 

.9082 

2.49 

.9122 

2.50 

.9162 

2.51 

.9202 

2.52 

.9242 

2.53 

.9282 

2.54 

.9321 

2.55 

.9360 

2.56 

.9400 

2.57 

.9439 

2.58 

.9477 

2.59 

.9516 

2.60 

.9555 

2.61 

.9593 

2.62 

.9631 

2.63 

.9669 

2.64 

.9707 

2.65 

.9745 

2.66 

.9783 

2.67 

.9820 

2.68 

.9858 


































382 HAND-BOOK OF MODERN STEAM FIRE-ENGINES 


TABL E — ( Continued) 

OF HYPERBOLIC LOGARITHMS. 


Num, 

Log. 

Num. 

Log. 

Num. 

Log. 

Num. 

Log. 

2.69 

.9895 

3.11 

1.1346 

3.53 

1.2612 

3.95 

1.3737 

2.70 

.9932 

3.12 

1.1378 

3.54 

1.2641 

3.96 

1.3726 

2.71 

.9969 

3.13 

1.1410 

3.55 

1.2669 

3.97 

1.3787 

2.72 

1.0006 

3.14 

1.1442 

3 56 

1.2697 

3.98 

1.3812 

2.73 

1.0043 

3.15 

1.1474 

3.57 

1.2725 

3.99 

1.3837 

2.74 

1.0079 

3.16 

1.1505 

3.58 

1.2753 

4.00 

1.3862 

2.75 

1.0116 

3.17 

1.1537 

3.59 

1.2781 

4.01 

1.3887 

2.76 

1.0152 

3.18 

1.1568 

3.60 

1.2809 

4.02 

1.3912 

2.77 

1.0188 

3.19 

1.1600 

3.61 

1.2837 

4.03 

1.3937 

2.78 

1.0224 

3.20 

1.1631 

3.62 

1.2864 

4.04 

1.3962 

2.79 

1.0260 

3.21 

1.1662 

3.63 

1.2892 

4.05 

1.3987 

2.80 

1.0296 

3.22 

1.1693 

3.64 

1.2919 

4.06 

1.4011 

2.81 

1.0331 

3.23 

1.1724 

3.65 

1.2947 

4.07 

1.4036 

2.82 

1.0367 

3.24 

1.1755 

3.66 

1.2974 

4.08 

1.4060 

2.83 

1.0402 

3.25 

1.1786 

3.67 

1.3001 

4.09 

1-4085 

2.84 

1.0438 

3.26 

1.1817 

3.68 

1.3029 

4.10 

1.4109 

2.85 

1.0473 

3.27 

1.1847 

3.69 

1.3056 

4.11 

1.4134 

2.86 

1.0508 

3.28 

1.1878 

3.70 

1.3083 

4.12 

1.4158 

2.87 

1.0543 

3.29 

1.1908 

3.71 

1.3110 

4.13 

1.4182 

2.88 

1.0577 

3.30 

1.1939 

3.72 

1.3137 

4.14 

1.4206 

2.89 

1.0612 

3.31 

1.1969 

3.73 

1.3164 

4.15 

1.4231 

2.90 

1.0647 

3.32 

■ 1.1999 

3.74 

1.3190 

4.16 

1.4255 

2.91 

1.0681 

3.33 

1.2029 

3.75 

1.3217 

4.17 

1.4279 

2.92 

1.0715 

3.34 

1.2059 

3.76 

1.3244 

4.18 

1.4303 

2.93 

1.0750 

3.35 

1.2089 

3.77 

1.3271 

4.19 

1.4327 

2.94 

1.0784 

3.36 

1.2119 

3.78 

1.3297 

4.20 

1.4350 

2.95 

1.0818 

3.37 

1.2149 

3.79 

1.3323 

4.21 

1.4374 

2.96 

1.0851 

3.38 

1.2178 

3.80 

1.3350 

4.22 

1.4398 

2.97 

1.0885 

3.39 

1.2208 

3.81 

1.3376 

4.23 

1.4421 

2.98 

1.0919 

3.40 

1.2237 

3.82 

1.3402 

4.24 

1.4445 

2.99 

1.0952 

3.41 

1.2267 

3.83 

1.3428 

4.25 

1.4469 

3.00 

1.0986 

3.42 

1.2296 

3.84 

1.3454 

4.26 

1.4492 

3.01 

1.1019 

3.43 

1.2325 

3.85 

1.3480 

4.27 

1.4516 

3.02 

1.1052 

3.44 

1.2354 

3.86 

1.3506 

4.28 

1.4539 

3.03 

1.1085 

3.45 

1.2387 

3.87 

1.3532 

4.29 

1.4662 

3.04 

1.1118 

3.46 

1.2412 

3.88 

1.3558 

4.30 

1.4586 

3.05 

1.1151 

3.47 

1.2441 

3.89 

1.3584 

4.31 

1.4609 

3.06 

1.1184 

3.48 

1.2470 

3.90 

1.3609 

4.32 

1.4632 

3.07 

1.1216 

3.49 

1.2499 

3.91 

1.3635 

4.33 

1.4655 

3.08 

1.1249 

3.50 

1.2527 

3.92 

1.3660 

4.34 

1.4678 

3.09 

1.1281 

3.51 

1.25561 

3.93 

1.3686 

4.35 

1.4701 

3.10 

1.1314 

3.52 

1.2584 

3.94 

1.3711 

4.36 

1.4724 


























HAND-BOOK OF MODERN STEAM FIRE-ENGINES. 383 


TABL E — {Concluded) 

OF HYPERBOLIC LOGARITHMS. 


Num. 

Log. 

Num. 

Log. 

Num. 

Log. 

Num. 

Log. 

4.37 

1.4747 

4.79 

1.5665 

5.21 

1.6505 

5.63 

1.7281 

4.38 

1.4778 

4.80 

1.5686 

5.22 

1.6524 

5.64 

1.7298 

4.39 

1.4793 

4.81 

1.5706 

5.23 

1.6544 

5.65 

1.7316 

4.40 

1.4816 

4.82 

1.5727 

5.24 

1.6563 

5.66 

1.7334 

4.41 

1.4838 

4.83 

1.5748 

5.25 

1.6582 

5.67 

1.7351 

4.42 

1.4838 

4.84 

1.5769 

5.26 

1.6601 

5.68 

1.7369 

4.43 

1.4883 

4.85 

1.5789 

5.27 

1.6620 

5.69 

1.7387 

4.44 

1.4906 

4.86 

1.5810 

5.28 

1.6639 

5.70 

1.7404 

4.45 

1.4929 

4.87 

1.5830 

5.29 

1.6658 

5.71 

1.7422 

4.46 

1.4914 

4.88 

1.5851 

5.30 

1.6677 

5.72 

1.7439 

4.47 

1.4973 

4.89 

1.5870 

5.31 

1.6695 

5.73 

1.7457 

4.48 

1.4996 

4.90 

1.5892 

5.32 

1.6714 

5.74 

1.7474 

4.49 

1.5018 

4.91 

1.5912 

5.33 

1.6733 

5.75 

1.7491 

4.50 

1.5040 

4.92 

1.5933 

5.34 

1.6752 

5.76 

1.7509 

4.51 

1.5062 

4.93 

1.5953 

5.35 

1.6770 

5.77 

1.7526 

4.52 

1.5085 

4.94 

1.5973 

5.36 

1.6789 

5.78 

1.7544 

4.53 

1.5107 

4.95 

1.5993 

5.37 

1.6808 

5.79 

1.7561 

4.54 

1.5129 

4.96 

1.6014' 

5.38 

1.6826 

5.80 

1.7578 

4.55 

. 1.5151 

4.97 

1.6034 

5.39 

1.6845 

5.81 

1.7595 

4.56 

1.5173 

4.98 

1.6054 

5.40 

1.6863 

5.82 

1.7613 

4.57 

1.5195 

4.99 

1.6074 

5.41 

1.6882 

5.83 

1.7630 

4.58 

1.5216 

5.00 

1.6094 

5.42 

1.6900 

5.84 

1.7647 

4.59 

1.5238 

5.01 

1.6114 

5.43 

1.6919 

5.85 

1.7664 

4.60 

1.5260 

5.02 

1.6134 

5.44 

1.6937 

5.86 

1.7681 

4.61 

1.5282 

5.03 

1.6154 

5.45 

1.6956 

5.87 

1.7698 

4.62 

1.5303 

5.04 

1.6174 

5.46 

1.6974 

5.88 

1.7715 

4.63 

1.5325 

5.05 

1.6193 

5.47 

1.6992 

5.89 

1.7732 

4.64 

1.5347 

5.06 

1.6213 

5.48 

1.7011 

5.90 

1.7749 

4.65 

1.5368 

5.07 

1.6233 

5.49 

1.7029 

5.91 

1.7766 

4.66 

1.5390 

5.08 

1.6253 

5.50 

1.7047 

5.92 

1.7783 

4.67 

1.5411 

5.09 

1.6272 

5.51 

1.7065 

5.93 

1.7800 

4.68 

1.5432 

5.10 

1.6292 

5.52 

1.7083 

5.94 

1.7817 

4.69 

1.5454 

5.11 

1.6311 

5.53 

1.7101 

5.95 

1.7833 

4.70 

1.5475 

5.12 

1.6331 

5.54 

1*7119 

5.96 

1.7850 

4.71 

1.5496 

5.13 

1.6351 

5.55 

1.7137 

5.97 

1.7867 

4.72 

1.5518 

5.14 

1.6370 

5.56 

1.7155 

5.98 

1.7884 

4.73 

1.5539 

5.15 

1.6389 

5.57 

1.7173 

5.99 

1.7900 

4.74 

1.5560 

5.16 

1.6409 

5.58 

1.7191 

6.00 

1.7917 

4.75 

1.5581 

5.17 

1.6428 

5.59 

1.7209 

6.01 

1.7934 

4.76 

1.5602 

5.18 

1.6448 

5.60 

1.7227 

6.02 

1.7950 

4.77 

1.5623 

5.19 

1.6463 

5.61 

1.7245 

6.03 

1.7967 

4.78 

1.5644 

5.20 

1.6486 

5.62 

1.7263 

6.04 

1.7989 


























384 HAND-BOOK OF MODERN STEAM FIRE-ENGINES. 

RULES FOR FINDING THE ELASTICITY OF STEEL 

SPRINGS. 

Rule I. — To find the Elasticity of a given Steel-plate 
Spring. — Multiply the breadth of the plate in inches by 
the cube of the thickness in y- 1 ^ inch, and by the number 
of plates ; divide the cube of the span in inches by the 
product so found, and multiply by 1.66. The result equals 
the elasticity in y 1 ^ of an inch per ton of load. 

Rule 2. — To find Span due to a given Elasticity , and the 
Number and Size of Plate. — Multiply the elasticity in six¬ 
teenths per ton, by the breadth of the plate in inches, and 
divide by the cube of the thickness in inches, and by the 
number of plates; divide by 1.66, and find the cube root 
of the quotient. The result equals the span in inches. 

Rule 3. — To find the Number of Plates due to a given 
Elasticity, also the Span and Size of the Plates. — Multiply 
the cube of the span in inches by 1.66; multiply the 
elasticity in sixteenths by the breadth of the plate in 
inches, and by the cube of the thickness in sixteenths; 
divide the former product by the latter. The quotient is 
the number of plates. 

Rule 4. — To find the Working Strength of a given Steel- 
plate Spring. — Multiply the breadth of plate in inches by 
the square of the thickness in sixteenths, and by the num¬ 
ber of plates ; multiply also the working span in inches 
by 11.3; divide the former product by the latter. The 
result equals the working strength in tons burden. 

Rule 5. — To find the Span due to a given Strength and 
the Number and Size of Plate. — Multiply the breadth of 
the plate in inches by the square of the thickness in six¬ 
teenths, and by the number of plates; multiply, also, the 
strength in tons by 11.3, divide the former product by the 
latter. The result equals the working span in inches. 




HAND-BOOK OF MODERN STEAM FIRE-ENGINES. 385 


Rule 6. — To find the Number of Plates due to a given 
Strength, Span, and Size of Plate .—Multiply the strength 
in tons by span in inches, and divide by 11.3; multiply 
also the breadth of plate in inches by the square of the 
thickness in sixteenths; divide the former product by the 
latter. The result equals the number of plates. 

T AB L E 

SHOWING THE ACTUAL EXTENSION OF WROUGHT-IRON AT 


VARIOUS TEMPERATURES. 

Deg. of Fah. Length. 

32°.1. 

212 .1.0011356 

392 .1.0025757 \ Surface becomes straw-colored, deep, 

672 .1.0043253 ^ yellow, crimson, violet, purple, deep 

752 .1.0063894 ) blue, bright blue. 

932 .1.0087730 ) Surface becomes dull, and then bright 

1112 .1.0114811 j red. 

1652 .1.0216024 4 

2192 .1.0348242 C Bri g llfc re( b yellow, welding heat, 

2732 .1.0512815 J white heat. 

2912 .Cohesion destroyed. Fusion perfect. 


Linear Expansion of Wrought-iron. — The linear ex¬ 
pansion a bar of wrought-iron undergoes, according to 
DanielTs pyrometer, when heated from the freezing- to the 
boiling-point, or from 32° to 212° Fah., is about gj 0 of 
its length; at higher temperatures, the elongation becomes 
more rapid. Thus, it will be seen how sensible a change 
takes place when iron undergoes a variation of tempera¬ 
ture. A bar of iron, 10 feet long, subject to an ordinary 
change of temperature of from 32° to 180° Fah., will 
elongate more than J of an inch, or sufficient to cause 
fracture in stone work, strip the thread of a screw, or 
endanger a bridge, floor, roof, or truss. 

The expansion of volume and surface of wrought-iron 

33 Z 



























386 HAND-BOOK OF MODERN STEAM FIRE-ENGINES. 

is calculated by taking the. linear expansion as unity; 
then, following the geometrical law, the superficial expan¬ 
sion is twice the linear, and the cubical expansion is three 
times the linear. 

Wrought-iron will bear on a square inch, without per¬ 
manent alteration, 17,800 pounds, and an extension in 
length of Y 4 1 o^. Cohesive force is diminished a^oo by a11 
increase of 1 degree of heat. 

Compared with cast-iron, its strength is 1.12 times, its 
extensibility 0.86 times, and its stiffness 1.3 times. 

Cast-iron expands y giro or l en gth for 1 degree of 
heat; the greatest change in the shade, in this climate, is 
yyy q of its length; exposed to the sun’s rays, yo’oo- 

Cast-iron shrinks, in cooling, from to -gg of its length. 

Cast-iron is crushed by a force of 93,000 pounds upon 
a square inch, and will bear, without permanent alteration, 
15,300 pounds upon a square inch. 

TABLE 

DEDUCED FROM EXPERIMENTS ON IRON PLATES FOR STEAM 
BOILERS, BY THE FRANKLIN INSTITUTE, PHILADA. 

Iron boiler-plate was found to increase in tenacity as its 
temperature was raised, until it reached a temperature of 
550° above the freezing-point, at which point its tenacity 
began to diminish. 

At 32° to 80° tenacity is 56,000 lbs., or one-seventh below its maxi¬ 


mum. 


u 

570° 

it 

u 

66,000 

(( 

the maximum. 

a 

720° 

u 

(6 

55,000 

it 

the same nearly as at 30°. 

a 

1050° 

(( 

a 

32,000 

U 

nearly one-half the maximum. 

a 

1240° 

a 

u 

22,000 

it 

nearly one-third the maximum. 

<< 

1317° 

a 

(( 

9,000 

u 

nearly one-seventh the maxi- 


mum. 


It will be seen by the above table that if a boiler should 
become overheated, by the accumulation of scale on some 


HAND-BOOK OF MODERN STEAM FIRE-ENGINES. 387 


of its parts or an insufficiency of water, the iron would 
soon become reduced to less than one-half its strength. 

TABLE 

SHOWING THE RESULT OF EXPERIMENTS MADE ON DIFFERENT 
BRANDS OF BOILER IRON AT THE STEVENS INSTITUTE OF TECH¬ 
NOLOGY, HOBOKEN, N. J. 

Thirty-three experiments were made upon the iron taken 
from the exploded steam-boiler of the ferry-boat Westfield. 
The following were the results: 

Lbs. per sq. inch. 

Average breaking weight. 41,653 

16 experiments made upon high grades of American boiler-plate. 

Average breaking weight. 54,123 

15 experiments made upon high grades of American flange-iron. 

Average breaking weight. 42,144 

6 experiments made upon English Bessemer steel. 

Average breaking weight. 82,621 

5 experiments made upon English Lowmoor boiler-plate. 

Average breaking weight. 58,984 

6 experiments made upon samples of tank-iron from different manu¬ 

facturers. 

Average breaking weight No. 1. 43,831 

“ “ “ No. 2. 42,011 

“ “ “ No. 3. 41,249 

2 experiments made on iron taken from the exploded steam-boiler of 
the Red-Jacket. 

Average breaking weight. 49,000 

It will be noticed that the above experiments reveal a 
great variation in the strength of boiler-plate of different 
grades of iron, and furnish conclusive evidence that the 
tensile strength of boiler-iron ought to be taken at 50,000 
pounds to the square inch, instead of 60,000. 






























388 HAND-BOOK OF MODERN STEAM FIRE-ENGINES 


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HAND-BOOK OF MODERN STEAM FIRE-ENGINES. 389 

TABLE 

SHOWING THE WEIGHT OF CAST-IRON PIPES, 1 FOOT IN LENGTH, 
FROM l INCH TO 1| INCHES THICK, AND FROM 3 TO 24 INCHES 
DIAMETER. 

- 















































































390 


HAND-BOOK OF MODERN STEAM FIRE-ENGINES, 



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TABLE 

SHOWING THE WEIGHT OF ROUND-IRON FROM £ AN INCH TO 6 INCHES DIAMETER, 1 FOOT LONG. 

For Calculating the Weight of Shafting, etc. 


HAND-BOOK OF MODERN STEAM FIRE-ENGINES. 391 


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392 HAND-BOOK OF MODERN STEAM FIRE-ENGINES. 

HOW TO MARK ENGINEERS’ OR MACHINISTS’ 

TOOLS. 

Any engineer or machinist can mark his name on his 
tools by first warming the tool to be marked, and rubbing 
on a thin layer of beeswax or tallow until it flows, and 
then letting it cool; after which the name may be marked 
with a dull scriber or a piece of hard wood sharpened to 
a point; then, by applying some nitric acid for a few 
minutes, the name will be found etched on the steel; after 
which the acid must be thoroughly washed off with water, 
and the tool again heated in order to remove the wax or 
tallow, and rubbed over with a soft rag. 

TO POLISH BRASS. 

Engineers will find the following recipe a good one for 
polishing the brass work of their engines. Oxalic acid, 
dissolved in rain- or cistern-water, in the proportion of 
about five cents’ worth to a pint of water, if applied with a 
rag or piece of waste, will remove the tarnish from brass, 
and render it bright; the surface should then be rubbed 
with an oily rag and dried, and afterwards burnished with 
chalk, whiting, or rotten-stone. This is probably one of 
the quickest known methods for cleaning brass. A mix¬ 
ture of muriatic acid and alum, dissolved in water, imparts 
a golden color to brass articles that are steeped in it for a 
few seconds. 

Owing to irregularities of surface, it often happens that 
considerable difficulty is encountered in putting a good 
polish on articles of brass or copper. If, however, they 
be immersed in a bath composed of aqua-fortis, 1 part; 
spirits of salt, 6 parts; and water, 2 parts, for a few 
minutes, if small, or about half an hour if large, they 




HAND-BOOK OF MODERN STEAM FIRE-ENGINES. 393 

will become covered with a kind of black mud, which, on 
removal by rinsing, displays a beautiful lustrous under¬ 
surface. Should the lustre be deemed insufficient, the 
immersion may be repeated, care always being taken to 
rinse thoroughly. All articles cleaned in this manner 
should be dried in hot, dry sawdust. 

Another receipt for cleaning brass, nickel-plated ware, 
or German silver, is to dissolve one ounce of carbonate of 
ammonia in four ounces of water, after which it should 
be mixed with 16 ounces of Paris white. To apply it, 
moisten a sponge with water, dip it in the powder, rub 
quickly and lightly over the surface of the metal, after 
which it may be rubbed over with some of the dry powder 
on a soft cloth or jiiece of clean waste. 

SOLDER. 

The following solder will braze steel or iron, and may 
be found very useful in case of a valve-stem or other light 
portion of an engine or machine breaking at a time when 
it is important that the engine or machine should continue 
work: Silver, 19 parts; copper, 1 part; brass, 2 parts. 
If practicable, charcoal dust should be strewed over the 
melted metal in the crucible. 

CEMENT FOR MAKING STEAM-JOINTS AND PATCHING 

STEAM-BOILERS. 

Take a quantity of pure red-lead, put it in an iron 
mortar, on a block or thick plate of iron. Put in a 
quantity of white-lead ground in oil; knead them together 
until you make a thick putty; then pound it; the more it 
is pounded, the softer it will become. Roll in red-lead 
and pound again; repeat the operation, adding red-lead, 

















394 HAND-BOOK OF MODERN STEAM FIRE-ENGINES. 

and pounding until the mass becomes a good stiff putty. 
In applying it to the flange or joint, it is well to put a thin 
grummet around the orifice of the pipe, to prevent the 
cement being forced inward to the pipe when the bolts 
are screwed up. When the flanges are not faced, make 
the above mass rather soft, and add cast-iron borings run 
through a fine sieve, when it will be found to resist either 
fire or water. 

Another Cement. — Powdered litharge, 2 parts; very fine 
sand, 2 parts; slacked quick-lime, 1 part. Mix all to¬ 
gether. So use; mix the proper quantity with boiled lin¬ 
seed-oil, and apply quick. It gets hard very soon. 

Another Cement. — White-lead ground in oil, 10 parts; 
black oxide of manganese, 3 parts ; litharge, 1 part. Re¬ 
duce to the proper consistency with boiled linseed-oil, and 
apply. 

Another Cement. — Red-lead ground in oil, 6 parts; 
white-lead, 3 parts ; oxide of manganese, 2 parts; silicate 
of soda, 1 part; litharge, h part; all mixed and used as 
putty. 

Another Cement. — Take 10 pounds of ground litharge, 
4 pounds of ground Paris white, 4 pound of yellow ochre, 
and 1 ounce of hemp; cut into lengths of 4 inch; mix all 
together with boiled linseed-oil, to the consistency of a 
stiff putty. This cement resists fire, and will set in water. 

Cement for Bust-Joints. —Cast-iron borings or turnings, 
19 pounds; pulverized sal-ammoniac, 1 pound ; flour of 
sulphur, £ pound. Should be thoroughly mixed and 
passed through a tolerably fine sieve. Sufficient water 
should be added to wet the mixture through. It should 
be prepared some hours before being used. A small 
quantity of sludge from the trough of a grinding-stone 
will improve its quality. 





HAND-BOOK OF MODERN STEAM FIRE-ENGINES. 


395 


JOINTS. 

Rust-joints, composed of sal-ammoniac, iron borings, 
flour of sulphur, and water, were formerly employed for 
all the permanent joints around engines; but they are 
fast going out of use and being replaced by faced joints. 

Red-lead joints were also very generally used, but they 
are now obsolete, and justly so, not only for their dirty 
appearance, but also for the difficulty experienced in start¬ 
ing them, as it required, in most cases, the use of sledges 
and chisels, which incurred the danger of breaking the 
flanges. 

All movable joints of the best description of land and 
marine engines are now faced on a lathe or planer, and 
then rendered perfectly steam-, air-, and water-tight, by 
filing and scraping, so that all that is necessary, when put 
together, is to oil their surfaces. 

For smooth surfaces that can be conveniently calked, 
sheet copper, annealed by heating it to a cherry red, and 
then plunging it in cold water, makes a permanent joint. 

Lead wire makes a very cheap, clean, and permanent 
joint. Copper wire also makes a very good joint; but, 
when convenient, it is always best to plane or turn a 
groove in one of the surfaces to be brought in contact. 

For uniform surfaces, gauze wire-cloth, coated on either 
side with white- or red-lead paint, makes a very durable 
joint, particularly where it is exposed to high tempera¬ 
tures. 

For pumps or stand-pipes in the holds of vessels, canvas 
well saturated on both sides with white- or red-lead makes 
a very durable joint. Pasteboard painted on both sides 
with white- or red-lead paint is frequently used with good 
results. 












396 HAND-BOOK OF MODERN STEAM FIRE-ENGINES, 


RELATIVE VALUE OF FOREIGN AND UNITED STATES 

MONEY. 


Country. 

Monetary Unit. 

Standard. 

Value in 
U. States 
money of 
account. 

Argentine Rep.. 

Peso fuerte. 

Gold. 

0 98.37 

Austria. 

Florin. 

Silver. 

47.60 

Belgium. 

Franc. 

Gold and silver 

19.30 

Bolivia. 

Dollar*....-.. 

Silver. 

96.50 

Brazil. 

Milreis of 1000 reis.... 

Gold. 

54.56 

Canada. 

Dollar. 

Gold. 

1 00.00 

Cent’l America. 

Dollar. 

Silver. 

95.50 

Clnli. 

Peso. 

Gold and silver 

91.34 

China. 

Cash. 

Copper. 


Cuba. 

Peso. 

Gold. 

92.58 

Denmark . 

Rigsdaler. 

Silver. 

96.50 

Ecuador. 

Dollar. 

Silver. 

96.50 

Egypt. 

Dollar of 20 piastres.. 

Silver. 

1 00.39 

France. 

Franc. 

Gold and silver 

19.30 

Great Britain... 

Pound sterling. 

Gold. 

4 86.65 

Greece. 

Drachms. 

Silver. 

19.30 

German Empire 

Mark.. 

Gold. 

23.82 

Hayti. 

Dollar. 

Silver. 

1 00.00 

J amaica. 

Pound sterling. 

Gold. 

4 86.65 

Japan. 

Yen. 

Gold. 

99.97 

India. 

Rupee of 16 ounces... 

Silver. 

45.84 

Italy. 

Lira. 

Gold and silver 

19.30 

Liberia. 

Dollar. 

Gold. 

1 00.00 

Mexico. 

Dollar. ... 

Silver. 

1 04.75 

Netherlands. 

Guilder. 

Silver. 

40.50 

Norway. 

Rigsdaler of 120 skgs. 

Gold. 

1 07.20 

Paraguay. 

Peso. 

Gold. 

98 37 

Peru. 

Dollar. 

Silver. 

96.50 

Porto Rico. 

Peso. 

Gold. 

92.58 

Portugal. 

Milreis of 1000 reis.... 

Gold. 

1 08.47 

Russia. 

Roubles 100 copecks.. 

Silver. 

77.17 

Sandwich Isl’ds 

Dollar. 

Gold. 

1 00.00 

Spain. 

Peseta, 100 centimes... 

Gold and silver 

19.30 

Sweden. 

Riksdaler of 100 oere. 

Silver. 

27.34 

Switzerland. 

Franc. 

Gold and silver 

19.30 

Tripoli. 

Mahbub of 20 piastres 

Silver. 

87.09 

Tunis. 

Piastre of 16 caroubs.. 

Silver. 

12 50 

Turkey. 

Piastre. 

Gold. 

04319 

U.S. of Columbia 

Peso. 

Silver. 

96.50 

Uruguay. 

Patacon. 

Gold. 

94 98 

Venezuela. 

Peso. 

Silver. 

77.73 


* The name Dollar is derived from the German “ thaler,” or from the Swedish 
“ rixdaleroyal dollar. The sign $ was adopted as a matter of convenience, 
instead of the U. S., which was formerly used. 

















































































































HAND-BOOK OF MODERN STEAM FIRF-ENGINES. 397 


TABLE 

SHOWING THE LOAD THAT CAN BE CARRIED BY MAN AND 

ANIMALS. 


Carriers. 

Kind of Road. 

Load 
in Lbs. 

Feet per 
Second. 

Hrs. per 
Day. 

Miles. 

Man. 

Good level. 

100 

3 

7 

14 3 

Man. 

Ordinary. 

95 

2.5 

7 

12 

Man. 

Mountainous.... 

50 

3.5 

10 

23.8 

Llama of Peru... 

Mountainous_ 

100 

3.5 

10 

23.8 

Donkey. 

Good level. 

300 

3.5 

10 

23 8 

Donkey. 

Mountainous.... 

200 

3.5 

10 

23.8 

Mule. 

Good level. 

500 

5.0 

10 

34 

Mule. 

Mountainous.... 

400 

4.5 

10 

40.6 

Horse . 

Good 1 e vel . 

300 

6 

8 

32 7 

Horse. 

Mountainous.... 

300 

4.5 

8 

24.5 

Camel. 

Deserts. 

1000 

3 to 4 

12 

30 to 40 

Elephant. 

Ordinary. 

1800 

3 to 4 

10 

35 


MAN OR ANIMAL WORKING-MACHINE. 


Man 

or Animal. 


Man.. 

Man.. 

Man- 

Man.. 

Man- 

Horse 

Horse 

Horse 

Horse 

Mule. 

Ass.... 


Machine. 


Rope and pulley. 

Crank. 

Tread-wheel. 

Tread-wheel. 

Draws or pushes. 

Horse-mill. 

Horse-mill. 

Four-wheel carriage 

{ Revolving 
mill 

platform. 


Force 
in Lbs. 

Ft. per 
Second. 

Hrs. per 
Day. 

50 

0.8 

6 

20 

2.5 

8 

144 

0.5 

8 

30 

2.5 

8 

30 

2 

8 

106 

3 

8 

72 

9 

5 

154 

3 

10 

100 

3 

8 

66 

3 

8 

33 

3 

8 


34 















































































398 HAND-BOOK OF MODERN STEAM FIRE-ENGINES. 


TABLE 

OF COEFFICIENTS OF FRICTIONS BETWEEN PLANE SURFACES. 


Sliding 

Surface. 


Cast-iron. 


Cast-iron, 


Wroiight- 

iron. 


Bronze. 


Cast-iron. 


Bronze. 


Bronze. 


Brass. 


Steel. 


Surface 
at Rest. 


Wrought- 

iron. 


Cast-iron. 


Bronze. 


Wrought- 

iron. 


Bronze. 


Cast-iron. 


Bronze. 


Cast-iron. 


Cast- 


iron. 


State of the Surfaces. 


f Fibres of both 1 
-j surfaces paral- >- 
( lei to motion. J 


« a 


/ Fibres parallel 
\ to motion. 


U (( 


(( 


u 


u 


u 


u 


u 


u 


u u 


Surfaces unctuous. 
Without lubric. 
Surfaces unctuous. 

f tallow. 
Lubri- j lard, 
cated -{ olive-oil. 
with | lard and 
L pl’bago. 
Without lubric. 
Surfaces unctuous. 
Lubri- ( tallow, 
cated -I lard, 
with {_ olive-oil. 
Without lubric. 
Surfaces unctuous, 
tallow. 


Lubri¬ 

cated 

with 


lard and 
pl’bago. 
olive-oii. 
Without lubric. 
Surfaces unctuous. 
Lubri- ( tallow, 
cated -j lard, 
with (olive-oil. 
Without lubric. 
Surfaces unctuous. 

cated’" I ‘f ow ', 
with l ollTe -° l1 - 
Without lubric. 
Surfaces unctuous. 
Lubricated with 
olive-oil. 
Without lubric. 
Surfaces unctuous. 
Lubri- ( tallow, 
cated < lard, 
with (olive-oil. 
Without lubric. 
Lubri- ( tallow, 
cated -j lard, 
with I olive-oil. 


Coeffi¬ 
cient of 
Fric¬ 
tion. 


0.143 

0.152 

0.144 

0.100 

0.070 

0.060 

0.055 

0.072 

0.060 

0.103 

0.075 

0.078 

0.161 

0.166 

0.081 

0.089 

0.072 

0.147 

0.132 

0.103 

0.075 

0.078 

0.217 

0.107 

0.086 

0.077 

0.201 

0.134 

0.058 

0.189 

0.115 

0.072 

0.068 

0.066 

0.202 

0.105 

0.081 

0.079 

























HAND-BOOK OF MODERN STEAM FIRE-ENGINES. 399 


TABLE — ( Continued.) 

OF COEFFICIENTS OF FRICTIONS BETWEEN PLANE SURFACES. 


Sliding. 

Surface. 

Surface 
at Rest. 

State of the Surfaces. 

Coeffi¬ 
cient of 
Fric¬ 
tion. 

. % 

Steel. 
Steel. 

Wrought- 

iron. 

Bronze. 

1 Fibres of 
> iron parallel - 
J to motion. 


Lubri¬ 
cated i 
with 
Without 

Lubri¬ 
cated - 
with 

tallow. 

lard. 

lubric. 

' tallow, 
olive-oil. 
lard and 
pl’bago. 

0.093 

0.076 

0.152 

0.056 

0.053 

0.076 


The work expended on friction is generally converted 
into heat, which is not utilized, but lost. It is, therefore, 
of great importance, in the working of machinery, to re¬ 
duce the work of friction to the lowest possible amount; 
for which reason lubricating substances are introduced be¬ 
tween the friction surfaces, such as powdered graphite, oil, 
tallow, lard, and, in fact, almost all kinds of fatty sub¬ 
stances ; all of which reduce the friction coefficients, but 
to a different degree, depending on how and on what kind 
of surfaces the lubrication is used. The friction coefficient 
is independent of the extent of areas in contact until near 
the point of abrasion. 

The force of friction can be ascertained only by experi¬ 
ments which have been made by Columbo, Vince, and 
Rennie; but the most complete and reliable experiments 
on friction were made by Morin, at the expense of the 
French government. 




















400 HAND-BOOK OF MODERN STEAM FIRE-ENGINES. 




TABLE 


OF FRICTION COEFFICIENTS FOR DIFFERENT PRESSURES UP TO 

THE LIMIT OF ABRASION. 


Pressure per 
Square Inch. 

Wrought-iron 

upon 

Wrought-iron. 

Wrought-iron 
upon Cast-iron. 

Steel upon 
Cast-iron. 

Brass upon 
Cast-iron. 

32.5 

0.140 

0.174 

0.166 

0.157 

187 

0.250 

0.275 

0.300 

0.255 

240 

0.271 

0.292 

0.233 

0.219 

277 

0.285 

0.320 

0.340 

0.214 

315 

0.297 

0.329 

0.344 

0.211 

336 

0.312 

0.333 

0.347 

0.215 

373 

0.350 

0.351 

0.351 

0.206 

411 

0.376 

0.353 

0.353 

0.205 

448 

0.395 

0.365 

0.354 

0.208 

485 

0.403 

0.366 

0.356 

0.221 

523 

0.409 

0.366 

0.357 

0.223 

560 

Abrasion. 

0.367 

0.358 

0.233 

597 


0.367 

0.359 

0.234 

635 


0.367 

0.367 

0.235 

672 


0:376 

0.403 

0.233 

709 


0.434 

Abrasion. 

0.234 

747 


Abrasion. 


0.235 

784 




0.232 

821 




0.273 



t 

























HAND-BOOK OF MODERN STEAM FIRE-ENGINES, 401 


THE PREVENTION AND REMOVAL OF 
SCALE IN STEAM BOILERS. 

There is no subject in connection with the use of steam 
of so much importance as that of the prevention of 
deterioration of boilers from the injurious effects resulting 
from an accumulation of scale on the interior surfaces, 
and from the use of feed waters containing chemical 
ingredients, which attack the iron, producing some one 
. of the numerous forms of corrosion, and to which causes, 
no doubt, are due many disastrous explosions, entailing 
great loss of life and property ; but under more favorable 
conditions, which, though not culminating disastrously, 
nevertheless add considerably to the cost in producing 
the required power. 

Lord’s Compound, a chemical preparation, has been 
used successfully for many years by more than twenty 
thousand representative establishments throughout the 
United States and Canada, and is highly recommended 
for neutralizing the acids in feed waters, and also for the 
prevention and removal of scaly deposits, without in any 
manner injuring the material of the boiler. 

This compound is manufactured dry, in the form of a 
granulated powder, in appearance resembling common 
brown sugar, and is put up in packages of convenient 
size—half barrels, barrels, and casks—covering a wide 
range in weight, of from twenty-five to five hundred 
pounds, for the convenience of large and small con¬ 
sumers. It readily dissolves in water, and can therefore 
be applied in a dry state through the man-hole, or in a 
liquid state by the feed pump, whichever is most con¬ 
venient. 

The quantity for an application will depend upon the 
nature and amount of water evaporated, the composition 














402 HAND-BOOK OF MODERN STEAM FIRE-ENGINES. 

of the scale, the coostruction of the boiler, etc., but for 
general use a half pound per horse-power per month has 
been found to give satisfactory results. 

It is important in all cases to remove the man- and 
hand-hole covers at stated intervals, clean out the sedi¬ 
ment which is sure to accumulate under all circumstances 
on the bottom of the boiler, subjecting it to the liability 
of overheating, and probably rupture j but it is impera¬ 
tively necessary to be awake to this important duty when 
using “ Lord’s Compound,” as the scale on the tubes and 
upper portions of the boiler being detached by it, is in 
time precipitated to the bottom, increasing the accumula¬ 
tion there and also the danger of overheating, if, as in 
many cases, the fire is in direct contact with it. 

When judiciously applied, this compound will never 
fail to meet the most sanguine expectations of the pur¬ 
chaser, but being composed of chemicals which are* 
harmless to boiler material, its action may require a 
longer period than would be needed by many of the 
dangerous and worthless compounds made of refuse acids, 
which, while removing the scale, likewise destroy the 
boiler iron by their corrosive action. 

Lord’s Compound is probably the only one of its kind 
that is unanimously endorsed by professional men through¬ 
out the length and breadth of this continent, among 
whom are authors of mechanical books, engineers in 
charge of works, practical chemists, professional in¬ 
spectors, and manufacturers having large capital invested 
in steam boilers. This unanimous endorsement is prob¬ 
ably due to the fact that not a single accident has occurred 
to any boiler using his compound, although they are to 
be found in every steam-using locality from Canada to 
Mexico, and from Maine to the Pacific slope. No stronger 
recommendation of its merits can be given. 




INDEX 


Absolute motion, 362. 

Accelerated motion, 363. 

Acceleration, 350. 

Actual or net horse-power, 150. 

Advantages of high-pressure en¬ 
gines, 143. 

Affinity, 350. 

Ahrens’,— first class, 132. 
steam fire-engine, 46, 47. 

Air, 48. 

component parts of the, 48. 
pressure of the, 50. 

Air-pumps, proportions of, 242. 

Air-vessels, 54. 

American coal and coke, table 
showing nature and varieties 
of, 312. 

woods, table showing prominent 
qualities in principal, 313. 

Amosheag, — first class, 131. 

self-propelling steam fire-engine, 
27. 

steam fire-engine, 90. 

Amount of benefit to be derived 
from working steam expan¬ 
sively, rule for ascertaining, 
334. 

Analysis of anthracite, 306. 

Angle, 350. 

Angles and short bends, 117, 252. 

Angular advance, 181. 
motion, 363. 

Annihilator, Wilcox, 41. 

Anthracite coal, 305. 

composition of different kinds 
of, 306. 

evaporative efficiency of a pound 
of, 307. 

quantity of air required for com¬ 
bustion of, 306. 

34* 


Apertures, discharge of water 
through, 76. 

Arithmetic, decimal, 217. 

Atlas steam fire-pump, 254, 255. 
Atmosphere, 48. 

column of, 51. 

Attraction, capillary, 351. 
Automatic cut-offs, 193, 215. 
Auxiliary-valve, 235. 

Available heat of combustion, 305. 
Axle, 351. 

Balanced slide-valves, 192. 
Bituminous coal, 307, 309. 

Blake’s special steam fire-pump, 226, 

235. 

Blasco d’Garay, 210. 

Boiler feed-pumps, proportions of, 
240. 

iron, etc., table showing result 
of experiments on different 
brands of, 387. 
vertical tubular, 271. 

Boilers and boiler materials, defini¬ 
tions as applied to, 288. 
of steam fire-engines, 271. 
Boiling-point of water, 64. 

Bottom view of Latta steam-boiler. 
277. 

Branca, 210. 

Brass, to polish, 392. 

Brewers’ and distillers’ pumps, pro¬ 
portions for, 243. 

Bucket and plunger pump, 228. 
Buildings, fire-proof, 43. 

Button,— first class, 133. 
steam fire-engine, 101. 

Calculations, significations of signs 
used in, 216. 


2 A 


403 
















404 


INDEX. 


Caloric, 301. 
latent, 302. 
radiation of, 301. 
reflection of, 302. 
sensible, 302. 

Canvas hose, 129, 

Capacity, metric measures of, 225. 
unit of, 221. 

Capillary attraction, 351. 

Causes of foaming in steam-boilers, 
275. 

Cement for making steam-joints and 
patching steam-boilers. 393. 
for rust-joints, 394. 

Central and mechanical forces and 
definitions, 350. 

Centre of gravity, 352. 
of gyration, 355. 
of oscillation, 364. 

Centrifugal pumps, 228. 

Chemical equivalents, 304. 

Circle, properties of, 374. 

Circulation of water in boilers, 
effects of heat on, 299. 

Clapp and Jones ’—second class, 132. 
steam fire-engine, 56, 57. 
vertical circulating tubular boil¬ 
er, 270. 

Clearance, 193. 

Coal, anthracite, 305. 
bituminous, 307, 309. 
productions of the world, entire, 
314. 

Column of atmosphere. 51. 

Combustible substances will ignite, 
table showing the temperature 
at which different, 315. 

Combustion, 303. 

available heat of, 305. 
spontaneous, 314. 

Commercial horse-power, 151. 

Communication of heat, 299. 

Component parts of air, 48. 

Composition of different kinds of 
anthracite coal, 306. 
of water, 61. 

Compound motion, 363. 

Compression, 192. 

Condensing engines, feed-pumps 
for, 248. 


Conde's challenge steam fire-pump, 

256. 257. 

Connection, Siamese or Y, 131. 

Corrosion of marine boilers, 283. 
of steam-boilers, internal and ex¬ 
ternal, 280. 

Coupling, the Gaylord, 131. 
the Universal, 131. 

Couplings, snap- and slide-, 130. 

Crank, the, 170. 

Crank-circle, subdivision of the, 
172. 

Crank, examination of the princi¬ 
ples involved in the use of, 171. 

Crank-pin, table showing angular 
position of, etc., 175. 

Curvilinear and longitudinal 
strains, 293. 
seams, 288. 

Cut-off engines, variable. 193. 

Cut-offs, automatic, 193, 215. 

Cylinder boilers, rule for, 286. 

Dead centre, 200. 

Decimal arithmetic, 217. 

equivalents of inches, feet, and 
yards, 217. 

equivalents of pounds and 
ounces. 218. 

equivalents to the fractional 
parts of a gallon or an inch, 
219. 

fractions, 217. 

Decimals, 217. 

Definitions as applied to boilers 
and boiler materials, 288. 

Delivery-hose, 116. 

Diameter of cylinder for an engine 
of any given horse-power, etc., 
rule for finding the required, 
208. 

Different methods of extinguishing 
fires, 40. 

parts of steam-engines, 170. 

Dimensions of first and second class 
modern steam fire-engines, 131. 
of the bucket-plunger steam fire- 
pumps, 239. 

Directions for setting up steam- 
pumps, 252. 

























INDEX 


405 


Discharge of water through aper¬ 
tures, 76. 

Dy namic equivalent of heat, 298. 

Dynamics, 352. 

Dynamometrical horse-power, 150. 

Earle’s steam fire-pump, 250, 251. 

Early forms of steam fire-engines, 
92. 

Eccentric, the, 179. 

how to find the throw of any, 
181. 

throw or stroke of the, 181. 

Eccentrics of marine-engines, 181. 

Economy of working steam expan¬ 
sively, 329. 

Effective pressure against the piston, 
153. 

Effects of heat on circulation of 
water in boilers, 299. 

Efficiency of steam fire-engines, 97. 

Elastic fluids, 53. 

Elasticity, 288. 
of steam, 319. 

of steel springs, rules for finding, 
3&4. 

Electro-magnetism, 169. 

Energy, 352. 

Engineers, 111. 

and firemen, useful information 
for, 114. 

Engineers’ or machinists’ tools, 
howto mark, 392. 

Engine in line, how to put an, 201. 
how to reverse an, 200. 

Entire coal productions of the 
world, 314. 

Equivalents, chemical, 304. 

of inches, feet, and yards, deci¬ 
mal, 217. 

Essential requisites of steam fire- 
engines. 95. 

Evans, Oliver, 212. 

Evaporation, 302. 

in steam-boilers, 279. 

Evaporative efficiency of a pound 
of anthracite coal, 307. 

Exatnination of the principles in¬ 
volved in the use of the crank, 
171. 


Factors, table of, 157. 

Feed-ptimps for condensing en¬ 
gines, 248. 

Fire, 28. 

alarms. 121. 

departments, paid and volunteer, 
118. 

Greek, 30. 
losses by, 44. 
what to do in case of, 36. 
Fire-engine, steam, 25. 
Fire-escapes, 42. 

Fire-hose, 128. 

Firemen, 112. 

Fire-proof buildings, 43. 

Fires, different methods of extin¬ 
guishing, 40. 
incendiary, 32. 
means of preventing, 38. 
precautions against, 34. 

First steam fire-engine, 88. 

Fitch, John, 212. 

Floating steam fire-engines, 100. 
Flow of water through canals, etc., 
to find the velocity of, 77. 

Flue boilers, rule for, 286. 

Fluids, elastic, 53. 

Focus, 353. 

Force, 352. 
pumps, 231. 

Forces and definitions, central and 
mechanical, 350. 

Foreign and United States money, 
relative value of, 396. 
terms and units for horse-power, 
148. 

Fractional parts of a gallon or an 
inch, decimal equivalents to 
the, 219. 

Fractions, decimal, 217. 

Fi'iction, 353. 

of slide-valves, 190. 
rollers, 354. 

Fuel and air, mixture of, 305. 

ingredients of, 305.. 

Fulton, Robert, 213. 

Gaylord coupling, the, 131. 

Glass water-gauge, 110. 

Gould, — first class, 132. 


















40G 


INDEX. 


Gould steam fire-engine, 122,123. 

Gradients, table of, 162. 

Gravity and gravitation, 354. 
centre of, 352. 
specific, 62, 354. 

Greek fire, 30. 

Gum-hose, 129. 

Gyration, centre of, 355. 

Heat, 293. 

communication of, 299. 
dynamic equivalent of, 298. 
latent, 295. 

mechanical equivalent of, 296. 
mechanical theory of, 297. 
medium, 300. 

molecular or automatic force of, 
298. 

of combustion of various fuels, 
table showing total. 311. 
power of expansion by, 298. 
sensible, 296. 
specific, 294. 
total or actual, 299. 
transmission of, 299. 
unit of, 219, 295. 

upon different bodies, table show¬ 
ing the effects of, 301. 

Heating surface of steam-boilers, 
rule for finding, 285. 

High-pressure engine, advantages 
Of, 143. 

or non - condensing steam - en¬ 
gines— fire, locomotive, and 
stationary, 143. 

or non-condensing steam-engine, 
waste in the, 167. 

Hodge’s steam fire-engine, 87-88. 

Holly’s rotary steam fire-pump, 258. 

Horizontal distances thrown by 
Ahrens’ steam fire-engine, 135. 
distances thrown by Amoskeag 
first class steam fire-engine, 134. 
distances thrown by Button first 
and second class steam fire-en¬ 
gines, 135. 

distances thrown by Clapp and 
Jones’ second, third, and fourth 
class steam fire-engines, 136. 
distances thrown by Gould first 


and second class steam fire-en¬ 
gines, 136. 

Horizontal distances thrown by 
modern steam fire-engines, 134. 
distances thrown by Silsby first- 
class steam fire-engine, 134. 

Holloway chemical fire-engine, 163. 
The value of, 165. 
the principle on which the chem¬ 
ical engine extinguishes fire, 166 

High grade engines, table comparing 
duty of modern, 170. 

Horse-power, actual or net, 150. 
commercial, 151. 
dynamometrical, 150. 
foreign terms and units for, 148. 
indicated, 150. 
nominal, 149. 

of a locomotive, rule for finding 
the, 159. 

of steam-engines, rule for finding 
the, 154-158. 

or power of a horse, 356. 

Hose-couplings, 129. 

J How to mark engineers’ or machin¬ 
ists’ tools, 392. 

to put an engine in line, 201. 
to put on letter “ B ” injector, 263. 
to reverse an engine, 200. 
to set a slide-valve, 196. 

Hydraulic ram, 267. 

Hydrocarbons, 305. 

Hydrodynamics, 356. 

Hyperbole, 356. 

Hyperbolic logarithms, 380. 
logarithms, table of, 381. 
logarithms to be used in connec¬ 
tion with given rule, table of, 
334. 


Ignition, spontaneous, 315. 

Impact, 357. 

Impenetrability, 357. 

Impetus, 358. 

Incendiary fires, 32. 

Inches, feet, and yards, decimal 
equivalent of, 217. 














INDEX. 


407 


Incidence, 358. 

Inclination, 358. 

Incline plane, 358. 

Indicated horse-power, 150. 

Inertia, 358. 

Ingredients of fuel, 305. 

Injector, the, 261. 

letter “ B,” how to put on, 263. 
letter “B,” Rue’s “little giant,” 

263. 

letter “ B,” method of working, 

264. 

table of capacities of Rue’s “ little 
giant,” 265. 

Instructions for the care and man¬ 
agement of steam fire-engines 
and boilers, 105. 

Insurance patrol and salvage brig¬ 
ades, 127. 

Internal and external corrosion of 
steam-boilers, 280. 
radius, 288. 

Invention and improvement of 
steam-engine, 208. 

Iron plates for steam-boilers, etc., 
table deduced from experi¬ 
ments on, 386. 

Janies Watt, 212. 

John Fitch, 212. 

Joints, 395. 

JLa France steam fire-engines, de¬ 
scription of rotary, 138. 
description of improved piston 
engine, 141. 

improved vertical boiler, descrip¬ 
tion of, 139. 

lap for slide-valves, rule for finding 
the required, 189. 
on the slide-valve, 186. 
required for slide-valves of sta¬ 
tionary engines, table showing 
amount of, 188. 

latent caloric, 302. 
heat, 295. 

heat of various substances, 300. 
heat of water or ice, 63. 


latta steam-boiler, bottom view of, 
277. 

steam-boiler, top view of, 277. 
steam-boiler, sectional view of, 
276. 

lead of the slide-valve, 189. 

Length, metric measures of, 224, 
unit of, 220. 

Leopold and Trevithick, 211. 

Letter “ B” injector, how to put on, 
263. 

Levers, 358. 

Lightness, 97. 

Linear expansion of wrought-iron, 
385. 

Locomotive, power or horse-power 
of the, 159. 

or fire-box boilers, rule for, 285. 
rule for finding the horse-power 
of a, 159. 

Locomotives, rule for calculating 
the tractive power of, 160. 

Logarithms, 378. 
from 0 to 1000, 379. 
hyperbolic. 380. 

Longitudinal and curvilinear 
strains, 293. 
seams, 288. 

Losses by fire, 44. 

Machines, 359. 

Marine boilers, corrosion of, 283. 
engine, eccentrics of, 181. 
pumps, proportions of, 241. 

Marquis of Worcester, 211. 

Mass, 369. 

Matter, 360. 

Mean or average pressure in a cyl¬ 
inder, rule for finding the, 334. 
pressure of steam at various 
points of cut-off, table of multi¬ 
pliers by which to find, 335. 

Means of preventing fires, 38. 

Measures and weights, metric sys¬ 
tem of, 223. 

Mecha n ical equivalent of heat, 296. 
powers, 360. 

powers, rules for finding effects 
of, 360. 

theory of heat, 297. 


















408 


INDEX. 


Mechanics, 361. 

Medium heat, 300. 

Mensuration of the circle, cylinder, 
sphere, etc., 371. 

3Iethod of working letter “ B” in¬ 
jector, 264. 

of working the steam and water in 
the Silsby rotary engine, 74, 75. 
Metric measures of capacity, 225. 
measures of length, 224. 
measures of surface, 224. 
systems of measures and weights, 
223. 

weights, 225. 

Mining-pumps, proportions of, 242. 
Mixture of fuel and air, 305. 
Modtilus, 362. 

Molecular, or automatic force of 
heat, 298. 

Momentum, 362. 

Money, foreign and United States, 
relative value of, 396. 

Motion, 362. 
absolute, 362. 
accelerated, 363. 
angular, 363. 
compound, 363. 
natural, 363. 
of steam, 326. 
perpetual, 365. 
relative, 363. 
retarded, 363. 
rotary, 363. 
uniform, 364. 

Motions, parallel, 363. 

Movers, prime, 368. 

Murdoch, 914. 

Names of principal manufacturers 
of steam fire-engines in this 
country, 89. 
of pumps, 234. 

Natural motion, 363. 

Newcomen, 211. 

Nominal horse-power, 149. 

Object of the safety-valve, 109. 

Oliver Evans, 212. 

Oscillation, centre of, 364. 


Prevention and removal of scale in 
steam boilers, 401. 

Paid and volunteer fire depart¬ 
ments, 118. 

fire departments, routine of busi¬ 
ness in, 125. 

Parallel motions, 363. 
rods, 214. 

Pendulum, 364. 

Percussion, 365. 

Perpendicular heights thrown by 
steam fire-engines, 137. 

Perpetual motion, 365. 

Piston, effective pressure against 
the, 153. 

in cylinder at different crank- 
angles, table showing the posi¬ 
tion of, 176. 

packing, setting out, 199. 
pumps, solid. 229. 
speeds for all classes of engines, 
table of. 175. 

Plane, incline, 358. 

Pneumatics, 367. 

Poppet or conical valves, to set, 198. 

Pound of anthracite coal, evapora¬ 
tive efficiency of a, 307. 

Pounds and ounces, decimal equiva¬ 
lents of, 218. 

Power, 367. 

of expansion by heat, 298. 
of the steam-engine, 144. 
or horse-power of the locomotive, 
159. 

Precautions against fires, 34. 

Pressure of steam on shells of steam- 
boilers, rule for finding aggre¬ 
gate strain caused by, 285. 
of the air, 50. 

on slide-valves, rules for finding 
the, 192. 
unit of, 223. 

Prime movers, 368. 

Proper method of locating steam 
fire-pumps, 260. 

Properties of good coke, coal, and 
wood, table showing relative, 
313. 

of the circle, 374. 








INDEX. 


409 


Proportions for brewers’ and dis¬ 
tillers’ pumps, 243. 
of air-pumps, 242. 
of boiler feed-pumps, 240. 
of marine-pumps, 241. 
of mining-pumps, 242. 
of slide-valves, 186. 
of steam-engines according to 
best modern practice, 203. 
of steam fire-pumps, 240. 
of tank-pumps, 243. 
of wrecking-pumps, 241. 

Pulsometer, the, 266. 

Pump, bucket and plunger, 228. 

Pump-plunger for any engine, 
rules for finding the diameter 
of, 247. 

Pumps, 227. 

centrifugal, 228. 
force, 231. 
names of, 234. 
of steam fire-engines, 93. 
rotary, 227. 
steam, 233. 

Quantity of air required for com¬ 
bustion of anthracite coal, 306. 

Radiating power of different bodies, 
table of the. 300. 

Radiation of caloric, 301. 

Radius, internal, 288. 

Ram, hydraulic, 267. 

Red-lead joints, 395. 

Reflection of caloric, 302. 

Relative motion, 363. 

value of foreign and United 
States money, 396. 

Relief-valve, 95. 

Retarded motion, 363. 

Robert Pulton, 213. 

Rods, parallel, 214. 

Rollers, friction, 354. 

Rotary motion, 363. 
pumps, 227. 

Routine of business in paid fire de¬ 
partments, 125. 

Rue’s “little giant” injector, letter 
“ B,” 263. 

Rule for ascertaining amount of ben¬ 


efit to be derived from working 
steam expansively, 334. 

Rule for cylinder boilers, 286. 

for finding aggregate strain 
caused by pressure of steam on 
shells of steam-boilers, 285. 
for finding diameter of a pipe 
sufficient to discharge a given 
quantity of water per minute 
in cubic feet, 84. 
for finding head of water in feet, 
pressure being known, 84. 
for finding heating surface of 
steam-boilers, 285. 
for finding heating surface of 
vertical tubular boilers. 286. 
for finding horse-power of a loco¬ 
motive, 159. 

for finding horse-power of steam- 
engines, 154-158. 

for finding mean or average 
pressure in a cylinder, 3:34. 
for finding necessary quantity of 
water per minute for any en¬ 
gine, 248. 

for finding number of United 
States gallons contained in a 
foot of pipe of any given di¬ 
ameter, 84. 

for finding pressure in pounds 
per square inch exerted by a 
column of water, 84. 
for finding pressure on slide- 
valves, 192. 

for finding required amount of 
lap for a slide-valve corres> 
ponding to any desired point 
of cut-off, 187. 

for finding required diameter of 
cylinder for an engine of any 
given horse-power, etc., 208. 
for finding required height of a 
column of water to supply a 
steam-boiler against any given 
pressure of steam, 84. 
for finding required “lap” for 
slide-valves, when the travel 
of the valve is known, 189. 
for finding requisite quantity of 
water for a steam-boiler, 83. 













410 


INDEX, 


liule for finding safe working-press¬ 
ure of iron boilers, 283. 
for finding safe working-press¬ 
ure of steel boilers, 284. 
for finding the power required 
to raise water to any height, 84. 
for finding the quantity of water 
a steam-boiler or any cylindri¬ 
cal vessel will contain, 83. 
for finding the quantity of water 
discharged through an orifice 
per minute, 83. 

for finding the time a cistern 
will take in filling when a 
known quantity of water is 
going'in, and a known quanti¬ 
ty is going out in a given time, 
83.. 

for finding the time a vessel will 
take in emptying itself of 
water, 83. 

for flue-boilers, 286. 
for locomotive or fire-box boilers, 
285. 

for tubular boilers, 286. 

j Rules for finding diameter of pump- 
plunger for any engine, 247. 
for finding effects of the mechani¬ 
cal powers, 360. 

for finding the elasticity of steel 
springs, 384. 

Hust-joints, 395. 
cement for, 394. 

Safe internal pressures for iron 
boilers, table of, 289. 
working pressure of iron boil¬ 
ers, rule for finding, 283. 
working pressure of steel boilers, 
rule for finding, 284. 
working pressure or safe-load, 
288. 

Safety-valve, object of the, 109. 

Salvage brigades and insurance 
patrols, 127. 

Screw, 361. 

Seams, curvilinear, 288. 
longitudinal, 288. 

Sectional view of Latta steam-boil¬ 
er, 276. 


Sensible caloric, 302. 
heat, 296. 

Setting out piston-packing, 199. 
valves, 196. 

Short bends and angles, 117, 253. 

Siamese or Y connection, 131. 

Signification of signs used in cal¬ 
culations, 216. 

Silsby ,— first class, 132. 

rotary crane-neck steam-fire-en¬ 
gine, 72, 73. 

rotary engine, method of work¬ 
ing the steam in, 74. 
vertical steam-boiler, 287. 

Slide-valve, 182. 

corresponding to any desired 
point of cut-off, rule for finding 
the required amount of lap for 
a, 187. 

how to set a, 196. 
lap on the, 186. 
lead of the, 189. 
proportions of, 186. 

Slide-valves, balanced, 192. 
friction of, 190. 

rules for finding the pressure on, 
192. 

Snap- and slide-couplings, 130. 

Solder, 393. 

Solid piston-pumps, 229. 

Specific gravity, 62, 354. 
heat, 294. 

Spontaneous combustion, 314. 
ignition, 315. 

Spring-gauge, 216. 

Statics, 368. 

Steam, 317. 

at different pressures, table show¬ 
ing temperature and weight 
of, 345, 349. 

at different pressures, etc., table 
showing temperature of, 338, 
339. 

atmospheric pressure of, 323. 

Steam-boiler, Silsby vertical, 287. 

Steam-boilers, causes of foaming 
in, 275. 

evaporation in, 279. 
internal and external corrosion 
of, 280. 










INDEX. 


411 


Steam-cylinder, thickness of, 204. 
cylinders of different diameters, 
table showing proper thickness 
for, 207. 

elasticity of, 319. 

Steam-engine, invention and im¬ 
provement of, 208. 
power of the, 144. 
the Button, 101. 

waste in the high-pressure or 
non-condensing, 167. 

Steam-engines, different parts of, 
170. 

proportions of, 203. 
rule for finding the horse-power 
of, 154-158. 

expansively, economy of work¬ 
ing, 329. 

Steam fire-engine, 25. 

Ahrens’ 46, 47. 

Amoskeag, 90. 

Amoskeag self-propelling, 27. 
Clapp and Jones’, 56, 57. 

Gould, 122,123. 

Hodge’s, 87, 88. 

Holloway chemical fire-engine,163. 
High-grade engines, duty of, 170. 
La France steam fire-engine, 138. 
names of principal manufacturers 
of, in this country, 90. 

SAlsby rotary crane-neck, 72, 73. 
the first, 88. 

Scale, prevention and removal, 401. 

Steam fire-engines and boilers, in¬ 
structions for the care and 
management of, 105. 
boilers of, 271. 

dimensions of first and second 
class modern, 131. 
early forms of, 92. 
efficiency of, 97. 
essential requisites of, 95. 
floating, 100 . 

horizontal distances thrown by, 
134. 

perpendicular distances thrown 
by modern, 137. 
pumps of, 93. 
self-propelling, 167. 
trials of, 103. 

35 


Steam fire-engines, water pistons of, 
94. 

Steam fire-pump, Atlas, 254, 255. 
Blake’s patent, 226, 235. 

Conde’s challenge, 256, 257. 
Earle’s, 250, 251. 

Holly’s rotary, 258. 

Knowles’, 246, 247. 

Wright’s bucket-plunger, 239. 

Steam fire-pumps, dimensions of the 
bucket-plunger, 239. 
proper method of locating, 260. 
proportions of, 240. 

Steam-gauge, 109. 

Steam-joints and patching boilers, 
cement for making, 393. 

Steam-pumps, 233. 

directions for setting up, 252. 
table showing the proportions of, 
244. 

Steam, motion of, 326. 

table of elastic force, temperature 
and volume of. 341. 
upon piston, table showing aver¬ 
age pressure of, 336, 337. 
volume and weight of, 327. 

Strains, longitudinal and curvilin¬ 
ear, 293. 

Strength in a steam-engine, 96. 

Stroke and number of revolutions 
for different piston speeds in 
feet per minute, table showing 
length of, 177, 178. 

Subdivision of crank-circle, 172. 

Substances, latent heat of various, 
300. 

Suction-pipe, 252. 

Surface, metric measures of, 224. 
unit of, 220. # 

Table containing diameters, circum¬ 
ferences, and areas of circles, 
etc., 68. 

containing diameters, circumfer¬ 
ences, and areas of circles from 
yy of an inch to 20 inches, etc., 
375. 

deduced from experiments on 
iron plates for steam-boilers, 
etc., 386. 












412 


INDEX. 




Table of capacities of Rue’s “ little 
giant” injector, 265. 
of coefficients of frictions be¬ 
tween plane surfaces, 398. 
of elastic force, temperature, and 
volume of steam, etc., 341. 
of factors, 157. 

of friction coefficients for differ¬ 
ent pressures up to the limit of 
abrasion, 400. 
of gradients, 162. 
of hyperbolic logarithms, 381. 
of piston speeds for all classes of 
engines, 175. 

of safe internal pressures for iron 
boilers, 289. 

of the radiating power of differ¬ 
ent bodies, 301. 

showing actual extension of 
wrought-iron at various tem¬ 
peratures, 385. 

showing amount of “ lap ” re¬ 
quired for slide-valves of sta¬ 
tionary engines, etc., 188. 
showing angular position of 
crank-pin, 175. 

showing average pressure of 
steam upon piston, 336, 337. 
showing boiling-point for fresh 
water at different altitudes 
above sea-level, 65. 
showing expansion of air by 
heat, etc., 52. 

showing hyperbolic logarithms 
to be used in connection with 
the given rule, 334. 
showing length of stroke and 
number of revolutions for dif¬ 
ferent piston speeds, etc., 177. 
showing multipliers by which to 
find mean pressure of steam at 
various points of cut-off, 335. 
showing nature and value of 
varieties of American coal and 
coke, etc., 312. 

showing position of piston in cyl¬ 
inder at different crank-angles, 
176. 

showing prominent qualities in 
principal American woods, 313. ' 


Table showing relative properties 
of good coke, coal, and wood, 
313. 

showing result of experiments on 
different brands of boiler iron, 
etc., 387. 

showing temperature and weight 
of steam at different pressures, 
345, 349. 

showing temperature at which 
different combustible sub¬ 
stances will ignite, 315. 
showing temperature of steam at 
different pressures, etc., 338,339. 
showing the actual discharge by 
short tubes of various diam¬ 
eters, etc., 79. 

showing the discharge of jets 
with different heads, 80. 
showing the effects of heat upon 
different bodies, 301. 
showing the load that can be 
carried by man and animals, 
397. 

showing the number of gallons 
of water discharged through 
different size apertures, etc., 81. 
82 . 

showing the proper thickness for 
steam-cylinders of different di¬ 
ameters, 207. 

showing the proportions of steam- 
pumps, etc., 244. 

showing the theoretical discharge 
of water by round apertures of 
various diameters, etc., 78. 
showing the weight of cast-iron 
balls from 3 to 13 inches in 
diameter, 388. 

showing the weight of cast-iron 
plates per superficial foot as 
per thickness, 388. 
showing the weight of cast-iron 
pipes, 1 foot, in length, from 
inch to V/i inches thick, and 
from 3 to 24 inches diameter, 
389. 

showing the weight of boiler¬ 
plates 1 foot square, and from 
xV inch to an inch thick, 390. 














INDEX. 


413 


Table showing the weight of square 
bar-iron, from 34 inch to 6 
inches square, 1 foot long, 390. 
showing the weight of round- 
iron from 34 inch to 6 inches 
diameter, 1 foot long, 391. 
showing weight of atmosphere in 
pounds, etc., 50. 
showing w'eight of water, 66. 
showing w-eight of water at dif¬ 
ferent temperatures, 66. 
showing weight of water in pipe, 
etc., 67. 

Tensile strength, 288. 

Thickness of a steam-cylinder, 204. 

Throw of any eccentric, how to find 
the, 181. 

Throw or stroke of the eccentric, 
181. 

Time or duration, unit of, 222. 

To find the velocity of the flow of 
water through canals, etc., 77. 

Tools, 368. 

To polish brass, 392. 

Top view of Latta steam-boiler, 277. 

Torsion, 268. 

Total or actual heat, 299. 

Tractive powder of locomotives, rules 
for calculating the, 160. 

Transmission of heat, 299. 

Trials of steam fire-engines, 103. 

Tabular boilers, rule for, 286. 

TJnburnt fuel, waste of, 311. 

Uniform motion, 364. 

Unit of capacity, 221. 
of heat, 219, 295. 
of length, 220. 
of pressure, 223. 
of surface, 220. 
of time or duration, 222. 
of velocity, 222. 
of w’eight, 221. 
of work, 222. 

Units, 219. 

Universal couplings, 131. 

Useful information for engineers 
and firemen, 114. 
numbers in calculating weights 
and measures, etc., 218. 


Valve, auxiliary, 235. 

Valves, poppet or conical, 198. 
setting, 196. 

Variable cut-off engines, 193. 

Velocity, 369. 
unit of, 222. 

Vertical circulating tubular boiler, 
Clapp and Jones’, 270. 
tubular boiler, 271. 
tubular boilers, rule for finding 
heating surface of, 286. 

Volume and weight of steam, 
327. 

Waste in the high - pressure or 
non-condensing steam-engine, 
167. 

of unburnt fuel, 311. 

Water, 60. 

boiling-point of, 64. 
composition of, 61. 
or ice, latent heat of, 63. 
pistons of steam fire - engines, 
94. 

rule for finding necessary quanti¬ 
ty of, 248. 

Water-gauge, glass, 110. 

Watt, James, 212. 

Wedge, 361. 

Weight, 369. 
unit of, 221. 

Weights and measures, 369. 

and measures, etc., useful num¬ 
bers in calculating, 218. 
metric, 225. 

What to do in case of fire, 36. 

Wheel and axle, 361. 

Wilcox annihilator, 41. 

Work, unit of, 222. 

Working a machine, man or ani¬ 
mals, 297. 
strength, 288. 

Wrecking-pumps, proportions of, 
241. 

WrighVs bucket-plunger steam fire- 
pump, 237. 

Wronght-iron at various tempera¬ 
tures, tables showing actual 
extension of, 385, 
linear expansion of, 385. 


■f 













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